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DEFINITIO N, NATURE, SCOPE OF
JOURNALISM
The world today has come closer with instant communication by satellite,
radio and television, linking all its parts. Only a few decades ago the
death of the newspaper had been anxiously forecast. Many
newspapers and magazines were unable to compete with television in
speed and vividness. But a s ubstantial number of journals continue to
comment the loyalty of readers.
The shrinking of the world has increased the appe tite for news. The
faculties involved in the gathering and presenting of news are basically the
same in the print medium and its electronic counter parts.
The newspaper reporter with his pencil, the radio correspondent with
his microphon e and the television correspondent with his camera take you
to the scene of action. Television viewer sees event taking place before his
eyes late midnigh t. A ‘Daily' reaching his doorsteps early in the
morning contains the same news but 'why' and ‘how' part of the intro-
paragraph makes the difference. Television gives us the Illusion that we
know exactly, what has happened as if we have seen it with our own eyes.
But if we read about the same event in the following morning' s newspaper
we come to know many aspects of the event hidden beneath the surface.
What television and radio cover in two hundred words receives ten times
more space in the newspaper.
In this respect, radio and television on the one hand and the print media on
the other are complementary, Television, according to one commentator,
has been responsible tor widened readership for newspapers. It has been a
boon to newspaper readers' interest in sports and in other fields.
News bulle tins transmitted by the electronic media serve to stimulate the
individual's appe tite for news and information, for more detail and
more depth. Reade rs satisfy that appe tite by reading their newspapers.
What is journalism?
Basic idea behind the journalism is that of communication.
Communication means to express feeling , ideas, though ts, views and see
to it that the other person/s or group unde rstands the message clearly
and correctly. 'Communication' mean to transmit ideas, message,
information to other persons. Its plural means 'transportation'. We, the
studen ts of journalism, are concerned with its first meaning ; i.e. to pass on
message or Information.
Communication is either inter personal, group or it can be meant for the
masses. Best example of interpersonal communication is 'telephonic
talk'. Here the other side i.e. the receiver responds immediately. munotes.in
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2 Classroom teaching - learning is an example of group communication.
Editorials In the newspapers, talks or news I tems or radio and television
are the examples of mass communication. Here we are In contact with the
larger sections of the people. The number of people at the receiving end
may be in thousands lakhs or even million and above. Take for example -
The Prime Minister's speech which is transmitted on All India Radio.
The number of listeners may be counted in crores.
Newspapers, Magazines, Radio , television are known as mass media and
journalism is the oldest medium of communication. Journalism is also
termed as 'Press'. The power of the printed word is expressed effectively
when it is called the 'Fourth Estate' - the three other being the legislature,
executive and the judiciary.
Today the term journalism is used to cover all forms of writing through
which news and comment on the news reach the people. All that happens,
and whatever happens to hold the Interest of the people, and all
thought, action and ideas which these happ ening stimulates, become
the basic material for the journalist.
Eric Hodgin s says, 'journalism is the conveying of information from here
to there, with accuracy, insight and dispatch in such a manne r that truth is
served:
Leslie stephens says, 'journalism consists of writing for pay on matters of
which you are ignorant.’ Both of these concepts flourish under the
guarantee of freedom.
The term 'journalism' has its origin in Latin term 'diurnal is' which means
'dally'. However today this term is applie d to a wider section of writing
which is known as 'field of Journalism'.
Webster's dictionary describes journalism ‘as a craft of collecting and
editing material of current interest for presentation through news media or
the editorial or business management of an agency engaged in collection
and dissemination of news.’
A journalist has been described as one who is a writer and aims at a mass
audien ce.
Some of the definitions of the term journalism are as follows :-
(a) The systematic and reliable dissemination of publi c information,
public opinion and public entertainment by modern mass media of
communication.
(b) Journalism is a report of things as they appear at the moment of
writing, not a definitive study of a situation:
(c) Publication of news and views is journalism.
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3 The root meanin g of the term journalism, its dictionary meanin g and,
various definition given above highlight 'information function' of the
Press.
There is a difference between an event taking place and an event that is
reported. Therefore, it is said that -the news is a timely report of an event:
There fore main functions of journalism are: a) To inform, b) To
interprete, c) To educate, d) To formulate publi c opinion and bring public
opinion into focus, e) To publi sh advertisements fulfill consumer need s
and f) to entertain.
A journalist brings public opinion into focus. Recently resentment in the
minds of the native people in Dabhol about the Enron Power Project
was made known to the public by the print media. State Government had
to take up this issue seriously and reviewed the, project and decided to
scrap it in the interests of the people .
Press can also mould publi c' opinion. Editorial space is utilised mainly
to give interpretation of the main events. Editorials, Articles. letters to the
editor play significant role in the area of publi c opinion.
Electronic media are under government control and thereafter press
assumes more responsibilities. Media can topple the governments as it
happened in Watergate scandal. Three former Chie f Ministers of
Maharashtra had to go as a result of the pressure put by the publi c opinion.
The journalist must be an earnest studen t of the flow of publi c opinion.
Polls of publi c opinion, election results, informal sounding s here and there
help him to determine the movements of the tide of publi c opinion.
Public opinion is an attitude deliberately reached at by individuals or
groups after studying pros and cons. With the help of publi c participation
the press aroused awareness again st the atrocities during the emergency.
Nature of journalism: Besides 'news function' other aspects like views.
Comments are also given prominent place. Themes of Indian journalism
have chang ed from time to time. Main themes of Indian journalism before
1947 A.D. were political freedo m and social reforms. Eminent
personali ties like Lokmanya Tilak were actively working in the field of
journalism. 'Kesari’ is a landmark in the history of Indian journalism.
Newspapers in those days were 'views papers'. People were eager to
know what Tilak said and they were anxious to read ‘Kesari'. After 1947
A.D. the role of 'Press' was seen from the angle of nation build ing and
efforts were made to strengthen Press.
Journalism and literature:
Mathew Ar nold defines journalism as "literature in a hurry", But this
statement has to be examined critically. The modern journalist will
not be happy with this definition. In fact it is very difficult to draw a line
of demarcation between journalism and literature. In literary writings the munotes.in
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4 author expresses his own thoughts and experiences while the journalist
expresses those of the community. Literature is timeless; journalism
must be timely. Great thinkers and writers have contributed to
journalism as well as literature. History of journalism in Maharashtra finds
abundan t examples of this type of versatile writing.
The Press is an institution of Society:
The Pr ess is an agency of mass communication. Technological
developments gave the press the scope, variety and immediacy required to
make s uch an agency. The Pr ess is an agency of the sc ience of
dissemination of information. (news and opinions)
The Press has prospered with the advancement of technolo gy and it
assumed a larger degree of responsibility. It also was forced to lake into
itself a moral and to some extent a legal accountability for its
performance. A practicing journalist must have a nature conception of the
importance of objectivity in news gathering and writing. This does not
mean the absence at the right to slant news or express opinion, when a
journalist is writing on an editorial page and taking full responsibility of
what he is writing. Thus, journalism as a vocation presents at one and the
same time the dual need for objectivity and personal conviction.
The Press in a Private Industry X Public Service:
As private business the press has to follow the considerations of economic
logic. It has to complete other newspape rs and therefore there "is incentive
to try to improve the end product i.e. copy of a newspapers. This in turn
provides a practical challenge to the quality and nature of journalism,
turned out by members of the fourth estate.
Public service function of the Press is even more important.
Today’s society has become Complex and therefore we depend upon
agencies of communication. The Press is the older and more influential
then other media, Newspapers and Magazines who have good circulation
must provide the facts and thus keep information of the subscribes update:
They must also serve as leaders, moderators and critics of events,
ideas and actions in the public interest. To perform this function the Press
should remain tree from pressures. It is difficult and once the Press accepts
its public service function it should accept publi c service accountability.
The mass communication is a potent instrument of influence on society.
Given a free press and a free peop le the science of mass communication
may be a benevolent and constructive institution - in a "controlled " society
it may be and is used as 'one of the principal methods of enslavement.
Field of journalism:
The term journalism is associated with newspapers but this is only one
area of journalism. There are other areas of journalism and in today's
modern world many more areas like satellites are being explored for munotes.in
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5 catering the need s of communication. The entire spectrum is known as
Field of journalism. There are five different categories of journalism:
(1) Newspapers, (2) General magazines and reviews, (3) Class. trade and
professional journals, (4) News magazines and magazine digests and (5)
radio and television.
Satellites and computers have entered the field of communication and
chang ed the dimentions of communication.
Newspapers are essentially news organs:
Event is put into "news shape " and displayed in proportion to its relative
value and timeline ss. Repo rting of new strange, interesting and significant
events becomes news and it is displayed according to its importance.
News can be classified as local, state, national or international from
geographical point of view; or it can be classified according to the subject
matter - crime, finance, sports, society, science or politics.
General Magazines and Reviews:
Have occupied a distinctive place in journalism, Magazines publish
fictional , factual and discussion material. The magazines contain articles.
Stories, essays, sketches and editorials which convey thoughts, ideas, facts
and function according to their editorial policy.
A review is a distinct type of periodical. And subjects are dealt with from
the editorial point of view and they are cr itical in nature. This type of
writing is publi shed in magazine form or nowadays review material
can be put in to "news shape". M any newspapers and magazines
have review sections of different types.
Class, Trade and Professional journals serve special groups:
Material published in this types of journals is gathered, compiled and
written for the benefit of a limited group of individuals. These specialized
magazines or journals, are concerned with the, advancement of the field to
which the publication belongs. Each type of publi cation in this category
may be national, sectional , state wide, or even local in its distribution.
News magazines and Magazine Digests are becoming more and
more important:
News magazines serves to summarize, organize, condense and
disseminate the most important news worthy facts, which may be
published by any of the journalistic media - particularly the news
reported by the metropoli tan press.
In general style of presentation the news slant and general word pattern
with the lead technique are observed. In format, method of
distribution, editorial direction, it resembles the general magazine, as well
as the review.
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6 Magazine - digests:
Are condensations of the most important stories and articles, more
especially the latter, appearing in various publications. It has become a
distinct category of critically selective groups of conde nsed magazine
articles.
Radio journalism :
In many ways radio journalism is quite different from publi shed
journalism. This applie s to news casting as well as advertising.
There are many forms of radio journalism. One of the most important is
the commentary of which there are two general types - namely the review
and the editorial.
Commentaries may be created by different types of script material,
such as the essay which produces a co-ordinated and smooth broadcast,
the outline which permits, flexibility of expression, and "the topic
script which insures naturalness often at the cost of unity and, sometimes
of good taste.
Radi o news takes the form of the spot newscast, dramatized news of
various kinds or direct newscast which is reporting as oppo sed to
interpreting and columning. The direct newscast may take different
forms, includin g the bulle tin, the straight report, the review, or the human
interest feature. Radi o journalism gathers its news in much the same way
as do other agencies of journalism.
Writing for radio requires the knowledge of certain techniques of
journalism and the understanding of radio as such. In general, whether
writing is script for a commentary, a newscast or a radio commercial, copy
is more "condensed, terse and telegraphic" than newspaper or magazine
copy. In addition, such copy is usually conversational by nature. A radio
editor must be as skilled in "radio sense" as a city editor is in "news
sense".
Television journalism is emerging as one of the major source of
information, interpretation, education, entertainment and advertising and
even consumer guidance.
This vast developing field of journalism offeres many opportunities to
young gradua tes and also pose challenges before them. All these fields of
journalism have certain responsibilities and a great variety of oppo rtunity
for constructive service. Each of the five categories have a variety of
reader - audien ce-appeal.
The newspaper attracts men of varied ability. Its newsroom and editorial
sections have served as a proving ground for many men of varying
character and ability.
Newspaper work is often a pathway to creative writing. Recognized
novelists, playwrights, essayists have served as apprenticeship in some
city rooms. munotes.in
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7 There is wide opportunity for magazine journalism to help clarify
though t, and all worthy literary devices may be used to that end. When
well done. Magazine articles are among the very best literary efforts of
modern times.
Getting a satisfactory job requires patience. Much depends on the general
business conditions at the time. During the past few year there appears to
be a r ise in the oppo rtunities ‘Business journalism' 'class, trade,
professional journals' Advertising' and careers in television and even radio
journalism. Non metropoli tan journalism is one worthy field. Newspapers
published in towns unde r 15,000 in population are referred to as non
metropoli tan which Included country weekly and the small town daily.
Both have intimate contact with the publi c they serve. Any journalist will
benefit by at least some direct experience on one of these newspapers. The
publishing of a successful weekly, semi weekly or small-town daily is an
honou rable vocation rich in satisfactions. In the hand ling of news on
small pape rs, strict attention must be given to local Items. Such pape rs
are slowly and completely read and errors of omission and commission
are quickly noted and long remembered. As in all other fields of activity,
opportunities almost always exist for the table and energetic person in non
metropoli tan journalism in almost any section of the nation.
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8 2
PRINCIPLES OF JOURNALISM
GLO BAL PRESS PHILOSOPHIES :
ln order to understand principles of Journalism in general and in the lndian
Context in particular as will have to take a global view of a glant arena in
which large and small press systems are actively engaged In their
activities. They all have rather specific sets of directions, but these
directions vary considerably. These press systems have guiding concepts
which are tied rather tightly to the traditional types of governments they
represent. Out of the wide and lntricate press design a few ideological
patterns take shape and stand out.
ln 1956 , 'Four Theories of the Press' was published. lt discusses the
media's responsibilities and attempts to explain why the media vary so
significantly from one society to another, The authors, Fred S. Sisbert,
Theodo re Peterson, and Wllbur Schramm, emphasized the close
relationship that exists between the media and certain basic beliefs that
each society holds. These bellsls are abou t the nature of humanity, the
nature of society and the state, the relation of citizens to the state, and the
nature of knowledge and truth. The authors found four different theories of
beliefs that societies hold about the media. The theories are : (1)
Authoritarian, (2) Communist, (3) Libertarian, (4) Social responsibility,
Freedom of Press :
The lndian Constitution confers no special rights or privileges to the press
as does the American First Amendment.
By the end of the eighteenth century, the Libertarian Theory had spread
through most of Western Europe and then to America, where it influenced
the men who wrote the U.S. Constitution. Thomas Jefferson voiced a part
of the Libertarian Theory when he declared that governments should
maintain a framework within which individuals could develop their own
capabilities Jefferson admitted that individual citizens might err, but he
believed that the majority would make sound decisions. Jefferson adde d
that the press was an essential source of information for the citizens who
needed to be educated and informed.
The U.S. Constitution mentions the press only once to declare that
Cong ress canno t abridge its freedom. The Constitution does not define the
term "Press" or place any restrictions upon it. The authors of the
Constitution feared that the press might be harassed and regulated by the
government, not that the government might be inconvenienced by the
Press. The press given no legal responsibilities; it canno t be censored or
forced to publi sh anything contrary to its own beliefs. Thus the Libertarian
Theory is more than an abstract philo sophy. It had a direct influence upon munotes.in
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9 the Constitution, and it continues to protect journalists at work to the
United States today.
A responsible press is another prerequisite for the healthy growth of the
Press. From this point of view we should note views of the twentieth
century thinkers.
Twentieth- century thinkers believe that the media should remain free, but
they now add that the media have certain responsibilities. The major
premise of their new theory the Theory of Social Responsibility is that
freedom carries con comitant obliga tions: and the press, which enjoys a
privileged position under our government is oblige d to be responsible to
society for carrying out certain essential functions of mass
communication in contemporary society." The ‘commission on
Freedom of the Press' in the United States published its report in 1947.
The report dealt primarily with newspapers. The commission studied all
the media In the United States, includin g books, magazines, movies, radio
and newspapers. The commission declared that newspapers must provide:
1. "A truthful comprehensive and intelligent account of the day's events
in a context which gives them meaning .”
2. "A forum for the exchange of comment and criticism,"
3. ''The projection of a representative picture of the constituent groups in
the society.”
4. "The presentation and clarification of the goals and values of the
society.
5. Full access to the day's intelligence.
These requirement point at the ethical standards to be followed by the
journalists. Accuracy, objectivity, comprehen sive news gathering and
presentation. (This includes publication of significant ideas of
oppo nents).The commission felt that newspapers' past performance was
clearly inadequate. and it warned that if the papers continued to abuse
their freedo m, new laws might become necessary to, protect the publi c.
The commission's complete report, which filled a 139 - page book,
is considered the first c lear summation of the Theory of Social
Responsibility.
The report was criticised for setting vague goals for journalists. How
could journalists determine the 'goats and values of society'? Journalists
also complaine d that it is impossible to report all the news. They
have to be selective and must discriminate. The recommenda tions of the
commission overlooked the fact that journalism is a private business; it
entertains also and has to earn a profit in order to survive. However,
journalists were even more disturbed by the threat of new government
controls.
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10 Despite their criticisms of the commission's report, journalists have
gradua lly accepted many of the Theory of Social Responsibility's most
basic premises. Journalist generally agree that they have a responsibility to
serve the public. They frequen tly acknowledge "the public's right to
know" and they believe in the importance of their role as a
watchdog s over government, which has remained a part of the Theo ry
of social Responsibility.' :
During a speech at Marquette University in Milwankee, Wisconsin,
William B. Burleigh, managin g editor of the Evansvile (lndiana) Press
complain ed abou t the emphasis frequen tly placed upon the first part of
the First Amendment which guarantees the media's freedom : Too low
(journalists), it seems to me concern themselves with the other half of the
equa tion, in which any freedom must be weighed, the question of
responsibility, "He added ” The Bill of Rights recognizes the right of the
people to a free press. Note well that doesn't say right of publi shers or of
reporters. Neither is a special caste. The right belongs to the people. And
to the degree that this confers any privilege on the press, it at the time
places obligations on as, obligations to compile, and publi sh useful,
sound , though tful information for the citizenary.”
Newspapers are unique barometers of their age. They clearly indicate the
climate of the societies to which they belong. The newspaper operates in
what is at once the most universal and the most sensitive area of publi c
interest. lt prints topics of common curiosities as well as disclosures made
by the authorities. (meant for publi c information).The Press has
traditionally three linked responsibilities : to collect and publish news; to
interpret and comment on it; to act as a watchdog of public interest in
areas of publi c concern where executive power may be arbitrarily used. lt
is in its responsibility as an agency of publi c information, inqui ry and
protection that the traditional case for the freedom of the press rests.
Independence :
Every newspaper has a distinct personality. The image of a newspape r is
created by the editor very carefully. Therefore the Editor's freedo m is also
a must for healthy growth of journalism. Mr. B.G. Verghese was
removed from the editorship of the Hindu stan Times by its owners. He
had to go because the type of indep endent journalism he practised hurt the
varied interests of the Birlas who had close relations with the ruling part.
The threat to independent Journalism from big business has been
increasing. Of late, several business houses have been showing increasing
interest in starting newspapers. This is particularly evident in Bombay
where buying and selling of newspapers is in full swing. AII sorts of
rumours are in the air and there is every indication that in course of time
not a single newspaper will be lift in that city which was once a c itadel of
press freedom. [Press at crossroads in lndia - Foreward by K.R. Sunde r
Rajan]
It is interesting to note that about the time Birla was seeking to
penalize George Verghese for his editorial conduct Verghese became a munotes.in
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11 recipient of the prestigious Magsaysay Award (1975).The citation praised
the intimate knowledge of the subject, combined with historical
perspective displayed by Verghese in his writings and stated "Verghese
practiced journalism within these exacting criteria with a perspicacity
matched by few of his colleagues any where."
Apart from Freedom and responsibility the principle of independence is
also required for the prosperous growth of the press.
High Court judgement on the Verghese case has thrown light on the
concepts of the freedom of the press and independence of the
newspapers. Of Editor, the judge ment stated : The editor is the living
ultimate voice of the press and speaks through the paper. The value of the
newspaper is in its contents, the selection of which is the sole and
undivided responsibility of the editor.
Arthur Hays Sulzberger, President and publisher of the 'New York Times'
told the American Society of Newspaper Editors in 1949 : 'The public
has the right to demand as accurate, full and impartial a news report as the
public itself is prepared to suppo rt. lt has the right because freedo m of the
press is one of its own funda mental freedoms which in effect it vests
with a relatively small number of its citizency. And the press suffers and
freedom everywhere suffers where a c ommunity fails to demand and
receive its rights in this respect... l hold it is the duty of every newspape r
of general circulation to inform its readers on all sides of every important
issue, and that it fails in its responsibilities when it does not do so. We
belie ve it to be our duty to give all available sides to a story and to present
the news without any criterion except objective news judgement. We
recognise the difficulties in obtaining strictly factual information although
we constantly try to achieve lt. Always we make this distinction between
interpretation and opinion and we earnestly seek to exclude the latter from
our news columns".
Journalists have now and then interest in developing ethical guidances
even thoug h the need for it has always been there. Their reluctance
is due to several factors. They want freedom to act in a crisis and in
crisis situations. They fear judge s would makes guideli nes into a rule of
law and they prefer self enforced professional standards.
Ethical Standards are important :
A begin ner on a newspaper or magazine of the better class will be
introduced to the codes or ethical standards followed, and it will be greatly
to the Journalists advantage not to deviate very much from these
standa rds.
The Code of ethics adopted by the American society of Newspaper
Editors in 1923 has been generally accepted by editors and publishers
throughout the nation as one of the best expressions of the principles of
journalism. These canon s of journalism includes - l) Responsibility,
ll) Freedom of the Press, lll) independence, lV) S incerity, Truthfulness,
Accuracy, V) impartiality, Vl) Fair play and, Vll) Decency. munotes.in
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For years, the cannos were the only code adopted voluntarily, without any
publi c pressure, The canons told newspaper editors what they should do.
They reflect the belief that peop le are rational, intelligent beings - that
they should be given raw facts as fairly as possible and should be allowed
to reach their own conclusions about those facts.
The media have adop ted a dozen or more codes of ethics, but few of
the codes have had much impact upon their performance. AII the codes in
effect today are voluntary; none can be enforced. Besides newspaper
codes there are 'movie codes', 'Broadcast Code s', 'The Comic Book Code' .
The Journalist's Code - The society of Professional Journalists, Sigma
Delta Chi, voluntarily adopted a new code of ethics at its international
convention in 1973 . The cods declares that journalists must seek the truth
and have a r esponsibility to "perform with intelligence, objectivity,
accuracy, and fairness." They should accept "nothing of value", because
gifts and special favours might compromise their integrity. Journalists
commented cr itically and reflected that - "Ultimately the individual
journalist will act ethically to the extent he himself is an ethical, thinking
person.
Despite their problems and limitations, codes of ethics undoub tedly are
better than nothing at all. The codes at least force journalists to think
about and to publi cly acknowledge their responsibilities and to formulate
for the attainment of their goals.
Principles for code of Journalistic Ethics :
The first press commission wanted that the following principles should
find place in a c ode of Journalistic ethics :
(1) As the Press is a primary instrument in the creation of publi c
opinion, Journalists should regard their calling as a trust and be
ready and willing to serve and guard the publi c interest.
(2) ln the discharge of their duties journalists shall attach due value to
fundamental human and social rights and shall hold good faith and
fair play in news reports and comments as essential professional
obligations.
(3) Freedo m in the hone st collection and publication of news and facts
and the right of fair comment and cr iticism are principles
which every Journalist should always defend.
(4) J ournalists shall observe due restraint in reports and comments
which are likely to aggravate tensions likely to lead to violence.
(5) Journalists shall endeavour to ensure that information disseminated
is factually accurate. No fact shall be distorted and no essential fact
shall be suppressed. No information known to be false or not
believed to be true shall be published.
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13 (6) Responsibility shall be assumed for all information and
comment publi shed. Lf responsibility is disclaimed, this shall be
explicitly stated beforehand .
(7) Unconfirmed news shall be inden tified and treated as such.
(8) Confidence shall always be respected and professional
secrecy preserved, but it shall not be regarded as a breach of code
lf the source of information is disclosed in matters coming up before
press council, or courts of ' law.
(9) Journalists shall not allow personal interests to influence
professional condu ct.
(10) Any report found to be inaccurate and any comment based on
inaccurate reports shall be voluntarily rectified. lt shall be
obligatory to give fair publi city to a correction or contradiction
when a report published is false or inaccurate in material particulars.
(11) All persons, engaged in the gathering transmission and dissemination
of news and commenting thereon shall seek to maintain full publi c
confidence in the integrity and dignity of their profession. They
shall assign and accept only such tasks as are compatible with
this integrity and dignity; and they shall guard against exploitation
of their status.
(12) There is nothing so unworthy as the acceptance or demand of a brief
or inducement for the exercise by a journalist of his power to give or
deny publi city to news or comment.
(13) The carrying on of personal controversies in the press, where no
public issue is involved, is unjournalistic and derogatory to the
dignity of the profession.
(14) lt is unprofessional to give currency in the press to rumours or gossip
affecting the private life of individuals. Even verifiable news
affecting, individuals shall not be publi shed unless public interests
demand its publi cation.
(15) Calu mny a nd unfound ed accusations are s erious professional
offences.
(16) Plagia rism is also a s erious professional offence.
(17) ln obtaining news or pictures reporters and press photographers shall
do nothing that will cause pain or humiliation to innocent, bereaved
or otherwise distressed persons.
Laws resated to the Press :
Freedo m of the press exists under Law. - Law affects journalism as it does
any other institutional division of Iife’s activities.
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14 Libel is a fundamental phase of that Law of the Press. Libel is perhaps the
greatest danger for the publisher. If his newspaper, or other publication,
oversteps the bound s, defaming person or property, he may be subject to
both civil and criminal libel.
A libel may be defined as a malicious publication, expressed either in
printing of writing, or by signs, diagrams, cartoons or pictures, tendin g to
blacken the reputation of a living person so as to expose him to publi c
hatred, contempt or ridicule.
Libel laws are framed so that citizens of a country get protection against a
misuse of a free press. If there is evidences, a journalist can defend
himself. A Journalist should quote the sources correctly. lt is
suggested that he can makes of use of words Iike 'alleged', 'suspected',
'accused' or 'charged' instead of straight foreword words showing actions
of the persons.
Contempt of Court Act, 1971 relates to the willful disobedience of judicial
orders and the like, and to any publication which lnterferes with or
undermines the administration of Justice. For example a journalist is guilty
of contempt of court if he comments on the integrity and competence of
the judge or he publi shes a report on a case held in camera (in the private
chamber of the judge ).
Contempt of Parliament :
Parliament expects a newspaper writer to be more cautious than a private
citizen in airing his views, as 'his views are wide ly published'. His
comments on parliamentary proceedings or on the performances of any
member of the House on the floor cannot contain any personal attacks.
Also, lf the language is vulgar or abusive and his comments are not seen
as fair or justifiable , his c riticism constitutes a breach of privilege and
contempt of the House.
Feroze Gandhi Act :
The Parliamentary Pr oceedings (Protection and Publications) Act of 1950 ,
provides that no person would be liable to any proceedings - civil or
criminal – for publishing in a newspape r, a substantially true report of any
proceedings of either House of Parliament. The Act was repealed during
the Emergency but after the Emergency it had been reenacted. The
Act permits the press to report defamatory statements in Parliament
without it being considered a breach of privilege. This Act, however
apples only to the proceedings In Parliament, not in state legislatures,
The Official secrets Act, 1923: prohibits obtaining, collecting, recording
or publi shing of secret government documents or photographs or sketches
or models, It is this Act which prevents lndian Journalists from publi shing
inside information abou t the confidential documents of the government.
The major constraint on the freedom of press In lndia are the Official
Secrets Ac t, the Parliamentary Privileges, the contempt of Court Act and
Press Ownership pattern. munotes.in
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15
The Official Secrets Act, 1923 deals with two kinds of offences : (a)
Spying. and (b) Wrongful communication etc of secret lnformation.
Section 5 of the Official Secrets Act hinde rs the publication of information
not prejudical to legitimate national or private interests but whose
publication may be in the interest of the community and against the
interest of the party in power. Lt is, therefore, essential to restrict its
operation by specillcally defining the types of information which need
protection from disclosurs.
Following the demand for repeal of Section - 5 of this O.S.A., the
Second Press Commission had recommended for the abrogation of this
section in its report submitted to the Government In 1982 , but the
Government rejected the recommenda tion in May, 1986 .
Parliamentary Pr ivilege is yet another concern for the journalist.
Parliamentary correspondents are often subject to harassment by touchy
members of Parliament do not recognize a Journalist’s right to edit copy
according to the need s of his pape r without distorting the contents of a
speech made by a member. Sometimes presiding officers in collusion with
the ruling party prevent publi cation of inconvenient parliamentary
Committee reports.
Right to privacy - The third Press Commission, headed by Mr. K.K.
Mathew, Retired Supreme Court judge, recommended enactment of law
relating to right to privacy.
The question that always arises whenever an investigative report is
publi shed is whether the report is sensational or news ? Privacy does not
pose any problem to an ordinary citizen, but for newsman each news
story, whether It be a report or a picture or a cartoon, may pose a problem
lf the public person does not takes kindly to the report, picture or a
cartoon. Any enactment of law relating to right to privacy should not curb
the rights of a journalist because the Press lives by disclosures.
The press ownership in lndia is concentrated in the hands of a few
Industrialist families who hold a c hain of newspapers. The Hindustan
Times is owned by Birlas. The Indian Ex press by Ramnath Goenka. The
Statement is owned by Tatas, and The Times of India is owned by Ashok
Jain. These families have significant economic stakes or interests outside
the newspaper business. In a s tudy f the concentration of economic
power in India one must take into account this link between industry
and newspapers which exists in our country to a much larger extent than
it is found in any of the democratic countries of the world. Under these
circumstances the editor cannot exercise his freedom and do his job
independently.
The journalist as a class are suppo sed to fight again st vested interests and
privileges, but they have themselves become a privileged class. The
comforts and contacts have become more dear to them than the good of munotes.in
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16 the common man. It is time journalists in India re-examine their
responsibility.
One of the ways in which the press, freedom can be ensured is to see that
newspaper owners do not have any other interest except the running of the
newspapers. This situation prevails in 'Hindu' in lndia 'Le Monde' in
France, in some newspapers of USA and UK and in most of the
newspapers in scandan rian countries. Attempts to run newspape rs as co-
operatives have failed in this country.
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17 3
JOURNALISTS & THEIR QUALITI ES,
DUTIES RIGHTS & RESPONSIBILITI ES
The practice of journalism is an applied art, it is also business enterprise.
But journalists avoid the term ‘Profession' for their job and they expect a
sense of digni ty to be associated to their work. The equip ment of a well
quali fied journalist consists of character, native ability, acquired technical
skill and a liberal education. His Job Involves responsibility and, it is of
great importance to the society. If he is performing his functions upto the
standa rd he can be looked with high esteem.
The layman thinks abou t newspapers when the term journalism is
ultered. As the students of journalism we should be aware about is various
facets.
Adequate preparation is necessa ry:
A journalist has to use a diversified store of knowledge. He is set for an
important and urgent task and therefore he should be in a ‘ready’ position
and start working in the field with zeal to achieve maximum goals.
Journalism has certain responsibilities and a great variety of oppo rtunity
for constructive service.
Qualities of a journalist:
A journalist must maintain physical fitness and he should have the stamina
to work day and night In order to meet hectic schedu le of his work. Job of
a Journalist is strenuou s and he has to work under physical and mental
stress. He has to meet a particular deadline and it requires to possess
qualities like punctuality and regularity. Timeline ss is an important factor
in the routine work of Journalists.
A Journalist has basic formal education. He is preferably a graduate of
any discipline. Formerly it was said that a journalist is 'a jack of all trades
but master of none' . But modern competitive journalism has change d this
attitude. Besides, this is an age of specialization and there is a need
to attain proficiency and skill and be specialized in a particular field e.g.
parliamentary proceedings are reported by journalists who have attained
mastery over reporting the working of both the houses. Besides, his
mother tongu e he should be conversant with national language i.e.
link language. Good command over English is a must! It is desirable
to know additional foreign languages say for example, Russian, German,
French, Arabic & so on.
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18 A journalist may opt to work on either editorial side or reportorial side but
he should have k nowledge of typewriting, shorthand and nowadays
computer software.
He should develop an ability to do translation work at a brisk pace.
Knowledge of Law may be additional qualification. Basically he should
have a zeal to work relentlessly.
A journalist must be able to get along with the people of diverse
types. He must be able to mix in all kinds of company with all kinds of
people from different walks of life.
A journalist must inculcate a quali ty of being patient in strange and
difficult situations. He must be tolerant of the opinions of others,
(sometimes his opponents also) and report faithfully what, he sees and
hears without being partisan on one side or the other. The journalist will
have to possess the courage of his conviction, a faith in his own ability,
the patience to stick to a s tory or to a source for a story and the
preservence to get to the bottom of a story. A journalist should possess
good general knowledge.
Experience:
Whatever academic courses you choose, you do need experience writing
on deadline for publication. There is truth to the saying that you can learn
best by doin g. There are two obvious laboratories for begining journalists.
One is a campus newspaper; another is community newspaper. Student
newspapers traditionally have been a natural bridge from the classroom
lessons to practical experience. Community newspapers in cities or in
suburban areas often cooperate with journalism schools.
Libel is considered to be a s erious mistake in journalism. An occasional
libel is usually for given on a University newspape r. By contrast the
consequences in the professional world would be quite serious.
One other obvious advantage of practicing your journalism in college
is that you will learn the importance of typing. With computer systems
being improved and exchanged, there is no certain way to become
familiar with a particular newspaper's computer operation except
through on-the-job training. If the newspape r has no training staff, you
must ask some journalist to give you a fundamental explanation of the key
board and its functions.
"No one had time to teach me how to use the VDTs (Video Display
Terminals)" recalled one bright young journalism intern. "For the most
part. I taugh t myself trial and error style - and I asked a lot of questions
when problems presented themselves. The VDTs were a source of fear,
frustration, and intimidation for many weeks."
Attitude towards journalism:
The following paragraph throws light on the duties of a journalist. It
also reflects journalist's attitude to his work.
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19 "Most of us have not helped down a corrupt president or gotten a
wrongfully convicted man out of jail. But some of us have gotten laws
changed or influenced decisions on national and foreign affairs or
nudged corporations Into recalling faulty products. Many of us have
written stories that have helped save an historic building or brough t a
fistful of checks for a needy family.
Newspaper stories can make a difference in people' s lives. And that's why
like to write them. They aren't always earth-shaking. In fact usually
they're not sometimes they merely make a reader smile and feel good.
But even that is not such a small thing.
The really twenty-four-carat, wonderful thing abou t journalism, for me, is
that while you are going about being useful, you can have a glorious time.
You can have a million roles. You can be a police officer, a fire fighter, a
lawyer, a diplo mat, a soldie r. And when you have finished your story.
You can go on to be something else. You are paid to go to some of the
most dramatic events. The coronation of a queen , the inauguration at a:
president, or, more likely at first, the swearing - In of a mayor. Of course,
there are ghastly missions, too, like covering plane crashes, and murders.
Some reporters spend their whole careers in one town; others explore the
globe.
The best newspaper reporters can write abou t anything. They can write
hard and crisp and they can write as soft as the morning dew."
This paragraph by Joseph B. Treaster, reporter, the 'New York Times'
refers to certain duties of a reporter in particular but his contention also
applies to other professional s in editorial department.
Need for training : Journalism is not a profession into which a person with
a flair for writing can simply leap, any more than some one with a flair for
first aid can just step into practicing medicine. In this area of rapidly
changing information technology. There is a new seriousness and
competitiveness in journalism. and training In a variety of skills helps the
new entrant in the field of journalism.
A begin ner without college training will certainly be at a disadvantage in
the market for a Job in daily and even weekly journalism. Such a trainin g
is given in America. In India we have colleges that give degree courses in
journalism. But elabo rate training is still a need in this profession.
Newspape rs like ‘Times of India’ have well equipped Libraries with
reference section. But training of journalists in other newspape rs is yet to
be accomplished.
Trainin g in journalism is comparatively a new concept. The profession of
journalism unlike that of law, medicine has no prescribed qualifications or
statutory test for those who pursue it or Intended to take it up as their
vocation. Many leading Journalists in earlier times though t that one would
understand a degree or diploma course in horticultures or veherology. But
how can any academic organization train one to write crisply, cogen tly
and charmingly. This belie f that journalists are born, not made remained munotes.in
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20 firmly rooted even In the west till the nineteen twenties when the need for
training In journalism dawned upon persons connected with the press.
The idea of trainin g in Journalism was originated in India by Dr. Annie
Besant in 1920. Dr. Annie Besant founde d the National University at
Adyar, Madras unde r the auspices of Theosophical Society. The
University had courses in Arts, Science and Commerce and the subject of
Journalism was added to Arts Faculty as a part of the English department.
The Poet laurate Rabindranath Tagor was the Chancellor of the
University. Dr. James H. Cousins was the head of the depa rtment of
journalism. The subjects taugh t were: history of journalism, press laws,
editorial practice and newspape r administration. Among the teachers of
Journanlism were such eminent persons as N.S; Rama Rao, Yadunath
Sarkar, Seshagiri Rao and C.S. Trilokekar and Paranjpe . They were
experienced Journalists and lawyers. .
Dr. Besant took special care to see that all studen ts got practice in the
field. This journalism course lasted for five years. 25 graduates completed
the course.
S. Sadana nd, editor and faunder of 'Free Pr ess Journal' believed in
trainin g and many senior Journalists got a training, for a free and 'fearless
press from him / unde r his, guidance.
Kasturi Srinivasan, an ardent admirer of Gandhi and the editor of
‘Hind u’ in
1039 made an equal ly great contribution to the Idea of trainin g Journalists.
The Studen tship in journalism was offered every year for trainin g as
apprentices in the 'Hindu' editorial department. The oppo rtunities are
offered to graduates of only Indian Universities.
The British Royal Commission emphasised the importance of recruiting
men with good general educational and journalistic background for
working as journalists in newspapers.
The Press Commission and the Committee on small newspapers in India
have both laid special stress on good educational background for recruits
to the profession of journalism. It is perhaps for this reason that the
Press Coun cil has been entrusted with the task of providing facilities for
the proper education and training of persons in the profession of
journalism.
Rights of a journalist:
Freedo m of expression is one of the most fundamental human rights. The
journalist also enjoys this right. In the United States, he is expression
than what is granted to the citizens of India. Journalist has access to
information that is usually beyond the reach of the common man. Nature
of his work demands this freedom. Therefore he gets certain previledges.
1. He does not solely depend on the set or regular sources of news . He
wants to visit the site of events, meet and present eye witness account munotes.in
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21 of that event. Therefore he should get free access to the sources of
news. Sometimes journalists make use of same sources again and
again. This tenden cy should be discouraged.
2. A journalist has a right to print without any prior permission or
restraint. A professional journalist is suppo sed to be well aware of his
responsibilities and editorial policies of his pape r.
3. It is journalist's right to print without the fear of any, reprisal
or imprisonment. The Government, the political parties, private
organisations can threaten journalist for his fearless reporting. There
should be no unjustifiable imprisonment or forceful seizure of material
of the journalist. Of course of journalist has to follow the ‘Laws
related to Press'.
4. The Press can not work without a regular supply of news print or other
printing material, one of the ways of controlling its freedom is to
curtail this supply, which is often exercised by authoritarian states.
5. A journalist has a right to distribute information without any
interference.
The Constitution of the United States includes the Bill of rights so as to
protect the individual from the government. The United Nations
(UNO) also has upheld freedo m of information as a human right for
only through this freedo m, a society can make progress and attain welfare
of the people .
Responsibilities of the Press:
Along with certain priviledges a journalist is entrusted certain amount of
responsibility. Various commissions have also worked on this topic and
they have come out with the following set of responsibilities :
1. First and foremost duty of a journalist is to give “a truthful
comprehen sive and intelligent account of the days' events in a c ontrol
which gives them meaning ." This duty implies impartial gathering of
news and its comprehensive display.
2. Educational function of media is equal ly important. Journalism acts as
a forum for the exchange of comment and criticism. In a developing
country there are certain issues which get priority in the media.
Atrocities on weaker section of society, child labour, rural
development, modernization in agriculture, family welfare, literacy
campaigns, awareness programme against social evils like corruption,
dowry g et prominent place in the news and editorial coverage of the
media.
New economic policy has given importance to topics like entry of
multinational companie s, entry of foreign media, trends in share markets
and other related matters which have become a part of modern standa rd of
living in urban areas. munotes.in
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22
National newspapers like 'The Times of India' , 'The Hindu' are trying to
reach the standa rds of 'quali ty journalism' and try to upgrade their standa rd
so that they can come on the world map of the media.
3. The projection of a representative picture of the constituent groups in
the society is an important function of the Press. P eople in India
belong to different races, religion and culture. Press is expected to give
'just’, coverage to each of the elements of its society. News papers in
India should cover problems not only of the urban population but give,
a proportionate coverage to rural tribal people . Current trend in Indian
journalism is to give place to local news at distinct level in 'Dak
editions', of their dailies. Leading newspapers like 'Times of India' and
'Indian
Express' publish 'Pune' edition or 'Nasik' edition of their daily once a
week.
Indian Press always faces a problem as regards to minority groups. They
always feel ignored and insecure. By and large, Indian newspapers have
given balanced coverage of news. 'Time of India' , especially has given
coverage to the feeling s of the minority community in its editorial section
as well as news section.
4. The media's impact on the cultural life of a country is being
hotly discussed, involving a kind of philosophic debate about the role
of the media. It has been argued that the family, school, church and
community determine cultural levels more than the media. It is
counter argued that the media are not selective about the issues and
responses their programmes create. The younge r generation is
considerably influenced by the television culture of glamour,
adventure and romance. Film magazines make a roaring business and
children's literature is published to a comparatively small proportion.
There is always a world of advertisements, using sex as an appeal. A
recent advertisement of shoes on media has created controversy. The
media do transmit high culture sometimes but it is diluted. So that
people can no longe r distinguish between the right and the wrong.
Walter Lippmann has drawn a distinction between "news" and "truth".
News coincides with truth in only a few limited areas such as
cricket scores or ejection results. But modern journalism has added a
new dimension. People in power try to keep truth hidden from the peopl e
and modern journalism tries to seek truth. It tries to expose to the public
what is being wrongfully concealed . This is an area of in depth reporting
and investigative reporting. But there is a large area of news where there
are obvious limitations to this search for the truth. Therefore we should
take into account these limitations.
It has been said that journalism is not a search for the truth. Journalism is
and must be a search for the relative truths that alone keep us same in the
world. It is a relentless search for what can be known and not what cannot munotes.in
Page 23
23 be known. News men must refrain from thinking of themselves as
professional s who set right things, who undo wrongs. They are gathers and
disseminators of information and are not historians. Journalists work under
pressure trying to learn what they can and present it coherently bearing in
mind the amount of time it takes to print and distribute a newspaper or the
need to be ready t o go on the air when the clock strikes 9 p.m.
Journalism involves learning and telling as much of a story as possible in
the time available to do so. A journalist must always be aware that the
story he investigates and writes abou t with care and accuracy is
incomplete and can be chang ed by events that may occur in between the
time he turns in his copy and the time the pape r or magazine for which
he works is printed. The best story can be outdated in less than a day after
it is published. Not even television, despite its capacity to show events
as they happen, can get the whole story. It can get only as much of it as
the camera can see or as will (it into the seconds allotted to it in the night
news bulle tins.
However there is persistent effort by journalist and also media men to
keep the reader or the listener or the viewer update on information that
surrounds him. Newspapers as well as radio and television stations
have asked citizens in their communities to serve on advisory boards that
meet at regula r intervals to comment on their performance. Fred Fedler
mentions advisory boards in United States of America in his book on
'Mass media'.
In the BBC newsroom control is exercised on a day to day basis through
the daily editorial conferences which are known as the morning meetings.
As there are two news departments (radio and TV) the meetings are
in important means to control at the divisional level since they are
linked by radio circuit over which discussions of mutual problems take
place and news judgements are exchanged.
As radio and television journalism has become an important part of
modern journalism we may take into account some critical comments
on news coverage of these media.
A common criticism of radio and TV news is against the repetitious
broadcasting of news already out in exactly the same words. Two
major causes of this consumer - discouraging repetition are (1) failure of
stations to rewrite consuming stories and (2) failure of stations to rewrite
agency copy.
Rewriting can freshen the news broadcast in two major aspects. It can
present new angles and it can make the news sound newsier and less
like repetition by the use of different words in a different approach.
(Here is the news - Rangaswami Parthsarthy P. 55. 77]
'Rave is the journalist who does not think of the profession with some
glee. True there are certain conditions of employment low salary and the
tenden cy of editors to forget what a glorious story you wrote last week. munotes.in
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24 But these clouds are frequen tly offset by silver linings that have become
legend s in themselves: the power of the press, the glory of bylines, and the
thrill of being among the first to know.’
[‘Into the Newsroom' - Leona rd Ray Teel. Ron Taylor. P. 11]
Daily - newspaper publishers run the presses every day. Theoretically
there are no days off in journalism, just as hospitals and police
departments. So, like hospital workers and police officers, journalists
work assorted shifts. In between 'shifts, the reporter and editor are
always, like a doctor, subject to being called at home for emergencies.
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25 4
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS
The nations of the world are communicating increasingly and have an
impact on one another. The media of mass communication are growing
in number and potency and contribute greatly to this interaction in
communication at the world level. World renounced organisations like
Unesco (UNESCO) condu ct seminars, symposia, clinics and workshops
and conferences to deal with wide range of issues and problems in
journalism and communication. We often talk abou t this in terms like
'Global mass communications and 'international journalists' and 'mass
communicators'. Accordingly an attempt can be made to give a panoramic
view of 'globa l journalism' such studies have been made and theoretical
considerations are given special attention to deal with the important issues
on the global scene - e.g. the growing debate about international
communications problems among nations and the New World
Information Order.1
1. Global journalism - John C. Merill P. 2
The global press has tremendou s power today as a purveyor of vital
information. Physical means of communicating news and interpretation
through out the world are well developed and capable of providing the
quan tity of messages neede d for proper unde rstanding among peop les. But
while messages flow more rapidly out in greater quantity then ever before,
questions of quali ty of impact, of significance, of balance, of truth, and of
motive come to the forefront. And while on the surface there appears to be
adequate information moving through most parts of the world,
governmental pressures, secrecy, censorship, and propaganda impede the
meaning ful and free flow of news. As governments become more
sensitive and cautious when confronted by the press, the universe of frank
and open news reporting is restricted, and honest and thorough going
dialogue becomes more difficult. As informed publi c opinion is needed
throughout the world of judicious decisions are to be made a free flowing
and intelligent supply of news and views must nourish this publi c opinion.
On the world scene as on the national scene, a truthful and unfettered press
can best serve the people. At least this is the view from the libertarian
standp oint of the western democracies. Such a free press can go far to
mend differences among nationali ties, classes and groups, it can frustrate
the plans of war-hungry leaders and rulers.
The authoritarian theory :
Authoritarian states dominated Western Europe from fifteenth century to
seventeenth century and their political systems had a significant impact munotes.in
Page 26
26 upon the press. In authoritarian states peace and order, security and
progress - The advance of civilization - were more important than
individual liberties and therefore citizens in the states were expected to
serve the state. The authoritarian theory made its appearance in a form in
sixteenth century E ngland. A press system which serves in the main
capacity of a governmental propaganda agency under a "strong man" type
of government might be called an authoritarian press system.
The leaders of authoritarian states considered printing a threat to their
power and issued licenses to regula te its use. The licenses were given to a
limited number of peopl e who suppo rted the goals of the state. Writers
and publi shers who criticized the government, its leade rs or policies could
be charged with treason and sentenced to prison.
Nazy Germany had an authoritarian press and so do several
countries in South America. Developing countries in As ia, Africa and the
Middle East often, employ the same type of system.
The Communist Theory : took its roots during the first quarter of the
present century. In a c ommunist society, according to Marx, the functions
of the press should come from the central function - the perpetuation of
and expansion of the socialist system. Means of communications should
exist to transmit social policy and not to aid in searching for truth. The
Press must be owned and used by the slate and directed by the communist
party or its agencies. Self criticism by the press is encouraged so long as it
is abou t any failure to live up to communist planning . The communist
theory is based on the premise that the masses are too fickle and too
ignorant and unconcerned with government to be entrusted with details
of its operation.
While the communist press is owned by and operated by the state, the
authoritarian press is privately owned. Another difference is that control
by government in the communist system is constant and uncompromising,
whereas government control in an authoritarian system can change
considerably with the particular leader in power.
Status of media in the chang ing scene of the Soviet Unio n during last
couple of years need s further thinking on this topic.
The Libertarian Theory: took roots in England and on the new continent of
America in seventeenth century. Political theories began to question the
Authoritarian Theory during' the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Established institutions in, Western Europe were under attack. The
Protestant reformation challen ged the authority of the Catholic Church and
political revolutions challenged the power of authoritarian governments.
At the same lime, new discoveries were expanding human knowledge in
the fields of geog raphy and science. These changes contributed to
an intellectual revolution that emphasized the role of individuals and
their right to make decisions for themselves. Thinkers now began to
argue that humans are rational moral being s and that they have the right
to determine their own destiny. Earlier people were considered servants of munotes.in
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27 the state. Now, political theorists argued that Society was composed of
autonomous individuals who created the government to protect their
rights. If it failed (the state tailed), they believed that the citizens had the
right to change or aboli sh it.
Exponents of this libertarian press movement during the eighteenth
century - characterized by John Milton and John Locke - insisted that
governments keep hand s off printed material. Individual liberties were
emphasized by these philo sophies. Liberties that have manifested
themselves in the American Declaration of Indepe ndence and the
Constitutional guarantees of free speech free press and religious pursuits.
Today the libertarian press measures its social utility by how well the
publi c is kept abreast of government activities. Theoretically at least,
the libertarian press is a fourth estate! supplementing the executive,
judiciary and legislative branches of government. This according to the
theory, is one of the main ways the libertarian press accepts its social
responsibility.
The Social Responsibility Theory:
Had its roots in the Libertarian press system. It goes beyond the
Libertarian theory because it places a great many moral restrictions on the
press. Instead of emphasizing freedom for the press, it stresses
responsibility.
Hutchins Commission report published in 1947 critically examined the
concept of freedom of press and maintained that the importance of the
press in modern society makes it absolutely necessary that an obliga tion of
social responsibility be imposed on the communication media. This leads
to advocacy of a regula tory system to watch the actions of the press and
keep to it functioning properly and suggestions were made accordingly.
Journalists in the United States have traditionally advocated
social responsibility by the press, but they have seen the government's role
of enforcement as a definite trend toward socialism and as a danger to the
free press.
Third World countries have gravitated toward a kind of press
responsibility concept which would increasingly make journalism a
kind of co-operating partner with the governments for the sake of
national progress and development. Most Western journalists see this
Third World - UNESCO trend. like the Hutchins Commission Concept of
the 1940 s as a threat to open and free communication.
The social responsibility theory is not of the kind is not a parallel theory
as the others. It might be said that all press systems are socially
responsible if they satisfy the norms, codes and prerequisites of the press
in a particular society. When a press system does not mirror its
country's political philosophy, it is then irresponsible. In other words a
social responsibility theory does not seem to exist alongside, or in addition munotes.in
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28 to the authoritarian libertarian and Communist theories. It is a part of all of
these other three theories.
Many governments in the Third World Coun tries (non-aligned or
developing World), firmly believe in a supportive or co-operative press
which has moral obligations to help the governments combat evil forces
which would threaten national security and stability.
The authoritarian and communist theories are quite similar in many ways.
Both systems of the press are authoritarian - perhaps totalitarian. The
authoritarian press knows what it canno t print, and beyond that the editors
are given considerable freedom and discretion in their editorial decision
making. Press in the communist system's mainly concerned with printing
what it is told to print. In short. It knows what is must print.
Libertarian theory is under heavy fire from critics of all types. The
social responsibility advocates feel that they know what the press should
do to be responsible.
And they believe that this concept of responsibility should take
preceden ce over the older, traditional concept of freedom.
It should be borne in mind that a good case may be made for the
contention that as libertarian press system become "more responsible" it
loses more and more of its freedom. At least this is a danger of which
freedom-loving people must be aware. Freedom of the press can slowly,
but rather easily, be fast unde r the popular banner of social responsibility.
The flow of international news and information is largely in the hand s of
the big world news agencies. Charges of inadequate and biased reporting
and news dissemination by the international news agencies are often made
in media conferences.
Chie f targets of this criticism are the news agencies of the West - the
United States' Associated Press (AP) and United Press International (U
PI), Britain's Reuters, and France's Agence France - Presse (A FP).
According to Third World spokesmen, the being western news agencies
have a virtual monopo ly of news dissemination and fail to provide the
world with a realistic picture of what is really happening. News is too
biased, especially in respect to the Third World; It is too heavy on items
of poverty, illiteracy, riots, revolutions, volcano eruptions, antics of
national leaders, skyjackings, etc. They ask : why is there not more news
about good things that are going on - bridge building, highway
construction, new schools, and the like ?
The Third World wants from Western journalism (1) a kind of balan ced
flow of information in and out of the Third World; (2) more thorough
incisive, and unbiased news coverage of their countries on a continuing
basis and (3) more emphasis on good or positive, news of the Third
World, including largely educational news of a progress type which has
come to be called "development" news. munotes.in
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29
Western journalists admit that there journalism. But they point out that
there is an unevenness in the news flow within countries. They also say
that what the Third World means by development news is really not
considered particularly newsworthy by Western journalists.
Most of the developing World must rely for global and regional news
on the four big western agencies - AP. UPI Reuters and AFP plus in some
instances, the other international agency, TASS of the Soviet Union.
A Third World newspaper receiving the Big Four of the West and
TASS would have some half million words pouring across its desks every
day.
Third World countries' displeasure with the big transnational news
agencies has led to the creation of their own press agency pool to
exchange news of common interest and develop a new style of journalism
that gives priority to on sensational and more positive events and
processes. Since 1976 , the non aligned movement of the Third World has
operated the New Agencies Pool of Non-aligned Countries.
Tanjug, the Yugoslav government news agency, transmits most of the
daily tile including reports to and from s ome 40 national agencies.
The news they exchange is mainly composed of communiqué s,
protocol visits of diplomats and texts of speeches. Also represented in
the file are economic, ecologi cal and cultural items.
In addition to the non-aligned news pool, there is also interpress, which
calls itself a "Third World news Service" Government agencies pay it to
rewrite and process their news reports and to provide them with an
incoming file of reports. Interpress also gels UNESCO funds to
promote its special activities and interests; in a sense, interpress is a
kind of globally oriented public relations firm.
Much of the news of the constructive type, - news of cultural and
economic development; of agricultural, technological and industrial
progress; and of items that promote trade and co-operative relations
among the Third World nations. It takes the form of' features, special
articles, analytical pieces and backgrounders.
Western journalist react that most of the information flowing through
these organisations is made up of government propaganda and handouts
from autocratic leaders; the news therefore, canno t be objective or
credible.
Among the studen ts of the world press there appea rs to be a consensus that
Press Freedom is losing ground all through the world. Every year the
surveys indicate that the press everywhere is becoming more controlled
except in a few scattered countries.
Surveys by such organisations as the Associated Press and the Inter
American Pr ess Association regularly point a dismal picture of
deteriorating press freedom in most parts of the world. Western concepts munotes.in
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30 of press freedo m are certainly not accepted everywhere and that there
are many semantic problems in dealing with this subject. It is also noted
or observed that although press freedom (from a United States viewpoin t)
is generally being lost through out the World, there are regions where it is
holding its own or even improving slightly.
North America has a great amount of press freedom. Latin America has
very little. Europe is highly polarized, with, the nations of Western Europe
largely enjoying very free press systems and the countries of Eastern
Europe going to the other extreme.
The Middle East is polarised into free press and controlled press camps.
But unlike E urope the press is facing increased restrictions. Many of the
emerging Nations of Africa and Asia are in a state of flux, generally
gravitating toward more control. This is reflected in their press systems,
too, where controls are exerted in the name of responsibility, stability or
national goals. The Australian press system is remarkably free and so are
those of Japan. New Zealand and Singapore. In Africa no press system
can be considered very free. South Africa exhibits characteristics of
press freedo m, but large percentage of the population have no access to,
the press at all.
Government pressures on the press of the world can be placed in the
following catagories : -
(1) Legal pressures:
The Indian Constitution acknowledges that there cannot be any such
thing as absolute and uncontrolled liberty and makes provisions
authorizing the state to restrict the exercise of the freedom guaranteed
unde r Clause 1, Article 19, within the limits specified. Thus Clau se 2,
Article 19, as subsequently amende d unde r the first Amendment to the
Constitution, enables legislature to impose reasonab le restrictions on the
exercise of freedom of speech and expression in the interests of the
securing of the state, friendly relations with foreign states, public order,
decency, or morality; or in relation to contempt of Court, defamation or
incitement to an offence.
Securing laws: No country allows the press total freedom in publication
of information. The publication of news which might endanger national
security is everywhere prohibited.
Press Laws: Press laws deal specifically with the rights and restrictions
of the press. Most of the press laws throughout the world are more
restrictive than protective, as exemplified by those in such countries as
Turkey, India and many of the Middle Eastern and Latin American
countries. However, some actually stress the press's rights and make them
explicit as in the case of Sweeden. Typical of the stricter press laws are the
“desacato" laws of Latin America which prevent the press from being
"disrespectful” to government officials. The United States, Belgium,
Switzerland and Britain have no press laws.
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31 Penal Laws: In most countries the law forbids malicious slander or libel -
that is statements, whether true or false, maliciously intended to damage
the honou r or reputation of private individuals.
Nearly all countries forbid publishing information likely to impede the
course of justice. Some countries forbid publi shing evidence until it is
heard in open court; but every country where the press is free permits
publi shing the actual proceedings. Among the severe restrictions found in
most countries are laws prohibiting the publication of news or comment
likely to bring a c ourt of law into contempt.
(2) Economic and political pressures : Government advertisements.
Distribution of news prints, a location of grants of various kinds are
different ways to exert pressures on newspapers and journalist.
Special favours and priviledges are granted to pro-government
pape rs.
(3) Secrecy: This type of indirect pressure, taking the form of
hinde ring press access to government sources and records. is quite
common through out the world press systems.
(4) Use of direct censorship and force: is common in communist
and other dictatorial nations.
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32 5
JOURNALISM IN INDIA
BEFORE 1947 A.D.
James Hicky, an Englishman, publi shed the first newspaper in India called
the "Bengal Gazette in 1780 A.D. This paper was in English and it was
meant for the Englishmen who were living in India. In the following
ten years by 1791 A.D. there were five papers in Calcutta, three in
Bombay and two in Madras. All these papers contained reports of the
proceeding s of the British Parliament. social events in England and news
of interest to the army personnel. They a lso reported the arrivals and
departures of the British people. Right from the beginning the British
press in India at this time attacked the administration and irritated the
provincial governments.
In response to the commercial need of the Indian merchants in Bombay
the English newspapers of Bombay started publi shing, advertisements in
Gujarati from 1797 A.D. Thus the first Indian language in which some
news was printed was Gujarati and the news pertained to commerce.
The birth of Indian Journalism was in Bengal. Gangadhar Bhattacharya
publi shed the "B engal Gazette" in 1816 A.D. in Bengali. This paper
survived only one year. At this time the Serampur missionaries started a
monthly "Dig Dhurshan" in 1818 A.D. and a little later "Samachar
Darpan" a weekly, in Bengali. These missionary papers attacked the
Hindu religion. In order to counteract 'this Rammohan Roy and his
associates started “Brahminical Magazine" 'in English and "Br ahmin
Sevadhi" in, Bengal i to refute the attacks on Vedanta. Roy also questioned
in these pape rs the authenticity of the concepts of Christianity. In 1821
A.D., he started “S ambad K aumudi" in Benga li. He edited in 1822
A.D., 'Miratool Akbar· a newspaper in the Persian language. In these
papers he expounded the higher principles of Hind uism' and
condemned the practice of Sati. He also cr iticised many of the acts of
British administration. His another objective was to refute the
propaganda made by Serampore missionaries against Hindu beliefs. His
writings provoked the colonial government on the one hand and also the
orthodox Hindus on the other, besides irritating the Christian missionaries.
Roy described his editorial duties in his writings and stressed the
role of newspapers as a watchdog of freedom of expression.
The beginning of the Vernacular press by Roy drew Indian attention to the
controversial social and political issues of the time. John Adam, the newly
appointed acting Governor-General took a very harsh view of the rise of
Vernacular press and he drafted and implemented new regulation called
the1823 Pr ess Ac t. Adam's regula tions were directed against Indian munotes.in
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33 language newspapers. As a result of these regula tions Roy's ‘Miratool
Akbar' ceased publi cation and his appeal to the Supreme Court against the
press regulations was rejected. Out of fear the Indian newspapers kept out
of all political and administrative matters for the next five years. The
period 1823 A.D.-1828 A.D. was the darkest period in the history of
journalism in India. It saw the depo rtation of remarkable editor
Buckingham. (Sir James Silk Buckingha m was the editor of the
'Calcutta Journal’. He presented a wide section of news in his paper
including a correspondence c olumn. His contribution to the struggle
for freedom of the press is remarkable).
Raja Rammohan Roy was one of the greatest Indian reformers, of modern
times. He belong s to the galaxy of builde rs of modern India and can be
more appropriately called the 'Father of Indian language journalism'.
In 1822 A.D., Ferdunji Marzban started a Gujarati weekly "B ombay
Samachar" with news of commercial interest. While the aim of Roy was
to educate the people about Hind uism and propagate social reformation,
the aim of Marzban was to serve the commercial interests.
Another characteristic of Indian journalism in the first decade of 19th
century was the co-existence of the British owned press and the Indian
owned press operating in two water-tight compartments. However both
fough t for the freedom of press.
Editorials published by Roy irritated the Government and lead to
the enactment of the V ernacular Press Act of 1823 A .D. which
placed many restrictions on the freedom of the press. Every newspaper
had to obtain a license from the Head of the Government because it was
thought that circulation of printed matter which was seditious tende d to
disturb peace in the society.
During the following period 1825 A.D. to 1857 A.D. the Indian press was
relatively free from interference from the Government on account of the
liberal outlook of Lord William Bentinck and others. The press Act of
1835 A.D. repeated many of the restrictions on the freedom of Indian
press except that every newspaper had to declare before the Magistrate
details about the press, editors etc.
According to historians the material publi shed in the press during this
time was greatly responsible for the revolution of 1857 A.D. During the
year 1857 the press was issuing statement of highly provocative
nature. The editorial columns as well as correspondence columns were
full of inflammatory incitement. On the other hand, the Anglo - Indian
newspapers wrote articles asking the government to take revenge
against the India press as well as Indian people. As a result of this, the
1857 Act was promulgated to restrain the circulation of printed books and
papers. The Act required license for running a press. As a result of this,
out of 35 popu lar publi cations in 1853 only six survived in the later part
of 1857 ; The Muting and the resultant legislation under Canning dealt
a severe blow to Indian and English journalism in the country and ruined munotes.in
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34 the printing press for several years. Since that time the tension between the
Indian and the Anglo-Indian became a dominant feature.
Political journalism in India is traced to 1861 A.D. when the Indian
Councils Act empowered the government to nominate distinguished
Indians to legislature. Public opinion was greatly stirred by this reform
which enabled Indians to be associated with the government in some form
for the first time. Many of the great newspapers which flourish even
today were established in this period.
'The Times of India' was established in 1861, ‘The-Pioneer' in 1867. ‘The
Statesman' in 1875 , 'The Hindu' in 1878. However people were not
satisfied with mere nomination to legislatures. Further the Press became
more critical of the government and administration.
During the regime of lord Northbrook there was a great food shortage in
Bihar. Newspapers described it as a famine. The Bengal / government
began to send thousand of rupee s in relief. Lord Northbrook favoured
continuation of relief and Sir George Campbell, the Lt. Governor of
Bengal though t that the relief should be discontinued. Robe rt Knight
supported Campbell publically in his official Gazette. This open ed once
again the controversy regarding the old problem of conne ction between
Government servant and newspapers.
In Janua ry 1875, Knight founde d the Indian Statesman. The statesman
introduced Sunday short feature and variety. Knight did substantial work
to awaken national thinking on All - India lines. He bridged the gulf
between the past and the future by rousing Anglo - Indian journalists to
consider Indian subjects. Like B uckingham, Knight promoted the critical
spirit towards the Government in Indian writers. Knight promoted social
causes (problems of people) through his journalism. Among the causes
promoted by him were - the strangers Home around 1862 to take care of
the numerous loafers and poor destitute Europeans in Bombay: the
creation of Bombay Port Trust the adop tion of the Tulsi Pine Scheme
for supplying water to Bombay: the awakening of the publi c opinion for
improving' civic amenities and reducing the high death rate of Bombay;
checking the unrestricted levy of the house tax.
A survey made in 1876 revealed that the Indian language press was quite
popular and powerful. The Indian language press was bitter in its comment
against the administration.
The Amrit Bazar Patrika was started as a Bengali weekly in March
1868 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh and his brothers from the village of Amrit
Bazar in Jessore district. In 1871 it shiften to Calcutta. The Amrit Bazar
Patrika was the outstanding newspaper of this period and fough t many
battles both for the freedom of the press and national emancipation.
Convinced that suppression of Indian Vernacular press was necessary
once again, Lord Lytton on March 1, 1878 passed the Vernacular Press
Act. One of the most comprehen sive and rigorous Acts, this Act munotes.in
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35 empowered the Government with more effective means to punish
seditious writings. Printers and publishers of an Indian language press had
to execute a bond that they would not publish any thing that would
excite the feeling s of disaffection against the Government.
Lord Rippon, the next viceroy of India was very liberal in his outlook. He
repealed the vernacular press Act in 1881. He also repealed the Press
Act of 1857 .
Surendranath Banerjee, the editor of a Bengali journal, undertook a
lecture tour of the country in 1877 to campaign for the recruitment of
Indians in Government service and for constitutional change s. He roused
the Political awareness of the peop le and politics became a dominant
interest in the press.
This activity lead to the enactment of the press Act of 1879
requiring the printer and the publisher to execute a bond.
The year 1885 s aw the establishment of the Indian National Congress
which further intensified the nationalist sentiment. Most prominent
members of the Cong ress were editors of newspapers like Dadabhai
Naoroji, Rana de, Narendranath Sen, Subramanya Ayer, Apte, Agarkar,
Malbari and others. The 3 main themes of the Indian press were social
reform which started in 1820 , the political reform which started in
1861 and nationalism which started in 1885 .
These 3 themes continued right upto 1947 when India became an
independent state. This period saw a chang e in the outlook of the Indian
newspapers. They concentrated more on "news" rather than on "views".
Thus in spite of the various incidents which affected the press, the
period from 1857 to 1885 witnessed a phenomenal rise in number or
newspapers in India in English as well as in the Indian languages.
Particularly the Indian language press was very powerful in expressing
its views against the administration.
While Ranade was an ardent advocate of social reform. Tilak emphasized
that social reform had no place until political freedo m was attained.
Aurobindo Ghosh hailed Tilak as a leader with clear perception of
the needs of the country. Thus the leaders who emphasised political
emancipation became more powerful in the beginning of the 20th
Century. Tilak carried on a campaign for national liberation through
journalism. Through “Kesari" Tilak wrote an Social. Political and
economic subjects for the enlightenment of the masses. Its mission was
popular education and public agitation. Through the “Maratha" Tilak
addressed the more advanced sections of the community. He also intended
that it should serve as the authoritative organ of educated public opinion in
relation to the Government and to the Englishment in India. Bengal
partition in 1905 further intensified the nationalism and national politics.
The Montagu - Chel msford report released in 1918 , was accepted by the
moderators, but they sugge sted important amendments. The extremists munotes.in
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36 rejected it outrightly. The sedition committee report in 1919 created
further resentment in the Press. The Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919. The
Act provided for the trial of political offende rs by Judge s without juries
and legal, internment without trial by provincial Governments of persons
suspected of having subversive aims. The Government did not respond to
the Indian publi c opinion to repeal the Act. It adop ted harsher measures.
The condu ct of General Dyer and Lt. Governor of Punjab 'Dwyer came in
for strong conde mnation in the Indian press but the Anglo - Indian
Press condo ned General Dyer's action and they justified the excesses of
the martial law regime. Thoug h every effort was made to prevent news
from the Punjab reaching other parts of India, a great deal did leakout and
the Indian , newspapers described the Jalianwalla Bagh massacre as cruel
and frightful. Due to this reporting the British Government can down
hearily on it. For example, the Amrit Bazar Patrika forfeited, its first
security of As.5,000 and a depo sit of Rs.10,000. The Tribune was asked to
furnish Rs.2.000 security. I ts editor was sentenced to imprisonment and
five. The Punjabee was forced to close down. The Hindu and the
Swadesimitran in "Madras” were asked to furnish securities of Rs.2.000
each and the Hindu was banned from the Punjab. The Bombay
Chronicle lost its editor, Horniman, who was deported.
As the law member of the Viceroy's Council, Sir Tej Bahadur
Sapru in 1921appointed a c ommittee with himself as chairman to go into
the Press raws Written evidence was called tor and witnesses were
examined. Eight prominent journalists were approached but they were
unwilling or unable to appear, before the Committee Kasturi Ranga
Aiyanagar of the Hindu and McCarthy of the Rang oon Gazette gave
their evidence in camera.
The Press Law Committee recommende d the repeal of the 1908 and
1910 Acts. Years between 1910 and 1920 were eventful from the point
of view of the Indian Press. The Imperial Press Conference was
held in London.
Surendra Nath Banerjee, represented for the Indian owned press and
Stanley Reed represented for the British press in India. Due to the efforts
made by Reed cable charges were drastically cut and cheape r press rates
came to existence.
From 1920 the tempo of the national movement increased rapidly and
found its expression in the Indian newspape rs. The news of Gandhi's Non
– coope ration Movement, Satyagraha and the demonstrations filled the
pages of every language newspaper in all parts of the country. In 1922 on
the recommenda tion of the Press Committee, the Press Act of 1908
and 1910 were repealed. Congress party met at Goa to discuss the issue of
elections.
There were differences of opinio n and C.R. Das, Vallabbhai Patel and
Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party. They wanted to take part in the
poll and carryon the fight against the British within the legislature. munotes.in
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37 They started their own publications to propaga te the ideas of Swaraj
Party.
The appointment of Simon Commission in the late twenties under Lord
Irwin to assess the working of 1919 Acts increased anti-British
Sentiments. On April 1930 the Congress Party at the historical Lahore
session asked for complete independence for the first time. Gandhi' s
Civil Disobedience Movement, the Salt March at Dandi , the terrorists
attack, in Chittgong , Bengal newspape rs attack on the Government and
numerous leaflets, Pamphlets and political propaganda, both open as well
as underground, floode d the country. In 1930 , the Press Ordinance. one of
the six ordinances to control the Press was promulgated.
The government dealt with acts of terrorism and inflammatory literature
firmly and The Swadeshi Movement, covered prominently by the Press, as
in The Hind u led to imprisonment of leaders like Gandhi and Nehru and
editors like S.A. Brelvi (Bombay Cronicle) and Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi
(Pratap).
In 1930, S. Sadanand founded the Free Press Journal, a daily, published
from Bombay, The first issue of the pape r came out on June 13,1930.
The Free Press Journal played a major role in the freedom struggle .
Sadan and believed in free and fearless press. His main ideals were
nationalism and publi c service. His journal had a c onsiderable hold on the
government. The Pheno menal figure of As.70,000 as forfeited security,
proves its command over the rulers. Soon after partition, Mr. B.G. Kher,
the first Chie f Minister of Maharashtra, offered Sadan and the refund of the
forfeited security, but Sadanand politely declined saying that it was paid
for a different cause.
News came from its parent agency, the Free Press (Setup in 1927 ),
which gave its readers the material of their choice. This exclusive news
material contained the facts relating the daily arrests of national
leaders, the vast procession, the mammoth public gatherings, the
shooting of Cong ress fighters and the blows given to them and the Lathi
charges and finally the statements of popula r spokesmen. All this news
material was publi shed in bold types and in prominent places. Banne rs
stretching over the entire page were introduced.
From 1917 , the Gandh ian era in politics began. He became a dominant
figure of the Indian political scene from 1920 , till his death in 1948. He
edited in his life time a number of journals. In 1904 he took over the
editorship of the "Indian Opinion" in South Africa which was published
in English, Tamil and Gujarati. In 1919 , he established the ‘Young India'
in English and 'Navajivan' in Gujarati.
In 1933 he started the "Harijan". Thoug h all these various papers'
enjoyed wide circulation he scrupulously avoided publishing any
advertisements. His articles were often circulated by the news agencies
to the daily press, and were published all over the country either on the
same day or on the following day. Thus Gandh i condu cted his political munotes.in
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38 work and his constructive work through the weeklies and contributed very
greatly towards inculcation of nationalism and self restraint in the Indian
Press.
During the Quit India movement and World War II. Press in India played
a commendabl e role in reporting the struggle for freedom fairly. It
oppo sed communal riots and partition of the country.
The National Herald. Hindustan Times. The Tribune fough t for freedom
during the World War II and the Quit India movement.
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39 6
PRESS IN INDIA AFTER 1947 A. D.
Press enjoyed complete freedom after 1956 . Jawaharlal Nehru had a
deep and abiding faith in Pr ess freedom. Nehru had exceptional
journalistic quali ties. Chalapati Rau, former editor of the 'National Herald'
has mentioned his journalistic qualities in one of his books. Once Nehru
wrote a report of a publi c meeting which was so graphic and well written
that it surprised many. "I would rather have a completely free press with
all the dangers involved in the wrong use of that freedom, than a
suppressed or regulated Press” - Nehru has expressed his views abou t
the Press Freedom in these words.
During the debates of the Constitution Draft Committee. Dr. Ambedkar
(the Chai rman) suppo rted the contention that freedo m of speech included
freedom of the press. Free India's constitution upheld the citizen's right to
freedom of speech and expression, which included the freedo m of the
press. While the obnoxious (offensive, disagreeable, hateful) Press Acts,
were repealed or amended , the official Secrets Act and Sections 0' the
Indian Code dealing with disaffection, communal hatred and incitement of
armed forces to disloyalty, were remained . 1951 , The Press
Objectionable Matters Act was introduced and passed to check
increasing writings with communal overtones. The Pr ess vigorously
protested against this Act which was allowed to lapse in 1956.
The national and regional press covered the campaign s of the first national
elections of 1951 -52 with professional skill. Formation of the linguistic
states, second and the third elections, the Chinese attack and the take over
of Goa were the other important events covered by the Press.
In 1952 Nehru announced the formation of Press Commission composed
of such eminent persons as Justice G. S. Rajadhayksha, Dr. Zakir Hussain
and M.Chalapati Rau. The Commission released the report on July
14. 1954. making following recommenda tions :-
1) It recommende d the appointment of a press Regi strar at the Centre
and its counterparts in the states to maintain all records and statistics
relating to newspapers and magazines.
2) It recommende d the establishment of a Press Coun cil. A
permanen t Press Coun cil should be established, to keep a watch over
the press and to secure maintenance of certain editorial and business
standa rds.
3) It recommende d that the editor should be vested with
administrative control over his staff, that appo intment in the
editorial department be made in consultation) with him and all munotes.in
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40 members of the staff be made to realise that they are working
towards a common goal under the leadership of the editor.
4) It suppo rted the price-page schedule with a view that it would affect
in the number of newspapers in the country.
5) Uniform rate of commission should be paid to news agents, to
eliminate payment of excessive commission and other unfair
methods of competition.
6) Printing of prize coupons in daily papers should be stopped. They
create bogu s circulation.
7) Advertisers should formulate a c ode of ethics and raise the
ethical standa rd of advertising.
8) Measures should be taken to prevent the expansion of monopo ly
control of newspapers.
9) Measures should be taken to favour the growth of district pape rs. So
also development of monthly journals should be encouraged.
10) It favoured emergency legislation for preventing press excesses
rather than the incorporation of the provisions of the Pr ess
(objectionable matters) Act into the Indian Penal Code and the
Criminal Procedure Code .
11) It recommende d the adoption of legislation relating to working
conditions salaries and benefits enjoyed by journalists.
The Press Commission set following objectives for the Press Coun cil :
1. To safeguard the freedom of the Press.
2. To help the Press to maintain its independence.
3. To study development in the Press, which may tend
towards concentration or monopo ly a nd if necessary, to sugge st
remedies.
4. To review the ownership structure and its impact on the performance
of the Press.
It also sugge sted code of ethics: Freedom in the hone st collection and
publi cation of news and facts and their rights of fair comment and
criticism are principles of journalism which every journalist should
always' defend.
It also stressed the responsibilities which the press has to keep in mind
while performing its duties.
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41 Press Council : .
A free press and a r esponsible press are the two prerequisites for the
healthy growth of journalism; journalism in turn will safeguard
democracy. A free press should be free from pressures from any quarter
be it the state, sections of the society, political and other interests, and
interests within itself. The Press should have enough, strength to
withstand corrupt practices and other evil influences. Therefore Press has
to be responsible and follow certain ethical standards of ethics so that
their credibility in the public mind is established. The first British Royal
Commission on the Press had felt that the means of maintainin g proper
relationship bet the Press and society lay not in Government action
but in the Press itself.
It any Section of the Press does not act responsibly and fails to observe
norms of ethics, there must be some machinery to deal with it.
Government machinery can get things done; but the best way, consistent
with the freedo m of though t and expression, is self regula tion by the Press
itself. It is out of this that the concept of a Press Coun cil or a Court of
Honou r has evolved. If the Press does not regula te itself the Government
might try to do it. This must not happen. A free Press should govern itself
and not allow the Government to govern it. So it is desirable that the
Press should have a self regulatory mechanism which is free from
interference and influence of Government while on the one hand a Press
Coun cil is required to deal with cases of violation of journalistic ethics
and to maintain high standards, on the other it must be a watchdog and
defende r of the Press freedom.
Unde r the Press Council Act, 1978 the first Press Coun cil in India was
constituted in 1979; the second in 1982 ; the third in 1985 and the .fourth
on Sept. 28. 1988 . It is meant to safeguard the freedo m of Press maintain
and improve the standard of newspapers and news agencies. Mr. Justice
A.S. Sarkaria is the present Chai rman.
Nehru realised that for the successful functionin g of a democratic set up,.
The freedom of the press was absolutely necessary. He strongly stood for
editorial independence. As prime minister he consulted oppo sition leaders
on important issues concerning national and international affairs. Nehru.
himself was a good journalist and during the freedom movement he
closely guided the National Herald in its news display and editorial policy
as the founde r, and chairman of the pape r. Nehru had a good command
over the English language and wrote in a lucid any simple style.
Althoug h Nehru s upported the amendment of Article 19(2) of the
Constitution and helped the passage of the 1951 Press Objectionab le
Matters Act. he did not implement them vigourously. Perhaps, he may not
even have moved the amendment, if he had not witnessed communal
disunity, demand for separate states and oppo sition to Hindi .
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42 Even during Emergency (1961. Chinese aggression) the imposition of
Press restrictions was minimal. The journalists respected the limitations to
a large extent.
The post-independen ce press was over supportive of the new
government, and failed to critically examine its policies. Even though
Nehru was mainly responsible for having not visualised the possible
confrontation with China and exposed the country to Chine se attack in a
State of military unpreparedne ss. the Press failed , on the whole, to take up
the role of responsible opposition to the government as it did during the
Prime Ministership of Indira Gandhi .
Mrs. Gandhi 's rule:
In contrast to Nehru's period, the period of Mrs. Gandhi' s rule was
characterized by confrontation between the Government and the Press.
Her nationalisation of the banks, insurance companie s and abolition of
privy purses frightened the Indian business community, resulting in
adverse comments in the newspapers owned by industrialists.
The Central Censorship order addressed to all printers, publishers and
editors, prohibited the publication of news, comments, rumours or
other reports relating to actions taken by the Government in accordance
with the proclaimation of Emergency (June 26, 1975). Maintainance of
Internal Security Act of 1971 . Defence of India Act of 1971 and other
Acts, in any newspape r, periodical or other documents without their first
being submitted for scrutiny to an authorised officer of the Government.
The Chie f censor was given total responsibility for supervising and
directing censorship. During this period the Chief censor used to send to
every paper detailed instructions about the coverage of news items
and photographs.
‘Indian Express' later on published censored copy of the first page of its
pape r where there were so many blan k columns a nd too little matter
printed.
During the emergency many journalists were jailed , newspaper offices
were raided and power supply was cut off to printing presses. The Press as
a whole did not stand up against the emergency. It crawled during this
period where as it was expected to bend only.
Among foreign journalists who were expelled from India during the
emergency were : Peter Hazelhurst of the -Lond on Times'. Loren Jenkins
of 'Newsweek'. Peter Gill of the 'London Daily Telegraph' and
Lewis M. Simon of the 'Washington Post'.
In U.P. Prachaa Janya, a weekly. Tarun Bharat. a daily and Rashtra
Dharma, a monthly - all Hindi publications of Jana Sangh were forcibly
closed by the police. In West Bengal journalists of the Amrit Bazar
Patrika, Gouri Kishore Ghosh and Barun Sen Gupta, were jailed. Piloo
Modys 'March India'. J.P.'s Everyman and Prajanily and George
Fernandes' Pratipaksha suspended publi cation. Janata published by munotes.in
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43 Nanasaheb Goray and Sadhana (Marathi) edited by S.M. Joshi were
bann ed.
'The Indian Express' and the Statesman faced the Government’s repressive
tactics with courage. The Indian Express was cool to Government pressure
to publi cise the bene fits of the 'Emergency'. The Government then
arrested Kuldip Nayar, Express News Service editor, dissolved the Board
of Directors and appointed a new board consisting of persons
approved by the Government in 1975 the Government suspended all
Central and State Government advertisements in the ‘Statesman'. The
news agencies were merged into one agency known as 'Samachar' Press,
Council ceased functioning . It functioned from November 1966 to January
1976, under the Press Coun cil Act 1965 . But the emergency regime
wound it up.
The unde rground press was, however, very active. More than 34
printing presses were seized and over 7,000 people arrested in connection
with the publi cation and circulation of unde rground literature. A.D.
Gorwala’s Opinion , Quest, and others were forced to close down.
Underground literature flourished in Gujarat, Tamilnadu , Bihar and
Maharashtra. Letters from JP and George Fernandes, were published
regularly. From Bihar alone more than
2,000 titles were circulated.
The RSS distributed underground literature in the form of news sheets
Which contained only news and quotations. They were published in
English and the major Indian languages. Indian s Abroad published anti-
emergency literature e.g. Swarajya (E ngland), Satyavani, Indian Opinion
(USA).
Janata Government Rule:
Indira Gandhi was defeated in 1977 polls. Her defeat was viewed by the
press as victory of democratic values and rejection of the authoritarian
rule in India. The Lond on Times commented ·
"Her rule, her leadership and her emergency have been rejected." It also
cautioned the new government abou t its difficult task of nation building.
Indian press was obviously jubilan t and published large front page
photographs of Jayaprakash Narayan and Morarji Desai and gave
comprehen sive coverage of the victory of ‘Janata Party'.
In an interview, Prime Minister Desai said. "Funda mental rights should
never be touched, whether there is emergency or not. They must be
maintained unde r the constitution," L.K. Advani was appointed as the
Minister for Information and Broadcasting. Like many other ministers in
Desai's new government, during the emergency. He had experience of the
field of journalism. He was a joint Editor of ‘Organizer' from 1960 to
1967 . Advani declared his intention to repeal the legislation curbing the
press. Within one month, Desai government repeale d the Prevention of
Publication of Objectionabl e Matter Act of 1976 . Parliamentary munotes.in
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44 Proceedings (Protection and Publication) Act of 1977 got approved.
Freedom of the press thus returned to India and the status of the press
was restored to that of the pre-emergency era.
The Second Press Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of
Kuldip Nayar, a well known journalist. The Commission was entrusted
with the job to look in to all aspects of the press in India. Verghese
Commission was appointed to investigate the autonomy of the mass
media, particularly government controlled radio and television. One of
the recommenda tions of the Verghese Commission, to provide equal time
to opposition parties on radio and television, has already bee n
implemented.
Newspapers gave favourable coverage to Desai's speeches about the
freedom of the press and it did not go out of its way to attack Desai.
Althoug h the Indian press held Mr. Desai in high esteem. it could not
ignore the political, economic and social chaos in the nation. From 1977
to 1979, the newspaper carried stories of labou r strikes, studen t violence,
increasing inflation. political turmoil, party defections, cabine t
resignations and the inept handling of Mrs. Gandh i's prosecution.
In the 1990 general elections Mrs. Gandh i came to power with convincing
victory over her rivals. Her party commande d more than two third
of the parliamentary 525 seats, where none of the oppo sition parties could
win more than forty one seats.
Soon after Mrs. Gandh i was sworn in as Prime Minister she was asked a
question about press censorship during the emergency. She said -
'Censorship was a special remedy for a very severe, acute disease. We
don't think that particular disease will hit the country again. Nor do we
want to give the same medicine’. These words express a note of caution;
otherwise Indira Gandh i was never known to be in coordial terms with the
press. The key word of Indian politics in the post 1980 poll was "caution".
The ruling party the press and the people were cautious and excesses by
any one of these institutions was checked by the others.
Press during Rajiv Gandhi's regime:
After being sworn in as Prime Minister. Rajiv Gandhi talked about press
freedom during the his chat with the newspaper men. But his coordial
relationship with the press did not last long. His two statements at a Press-
Conference on July 8, 1985 demolished his image and invited adverse
comments from the press. He defende d emergency and stressed that if the
conditions prevalent in 1975 crop up again, he would not hesitate to
impose emergency. Secondly, the catagorically rejected the idea of
granting autonomy to radio and television and said that electronic media
could not function' the way press behaved.
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45 Authoritarian tendency was revealed from these statements and editorials
of Stateman'. Indian Express and 'The Times of India' to serious
cognizance of it Rajiv Gandhi's statements were criticized.
The relations between the Press and Rajiv Gandhi deteriorated further in
the year 1985-86. Income tax raids on the big business houses, price
increases of essential commodities just before the budge t session, events
taking place in the Congress and the Muslim Womens' Bill. The
editorials 'Rushing backwards· (The Times of India) and 'Giving in to the
fundamentalists' (Hindu , May 8, 1986) blamed the Rajiv Gandhi
government on the issue of muslim Women's Bill and commented harshly
for professing to take the country to 21st Century but in effect resorting to
retrograde measures.
The role of journalists in the controversies of the President - Prime
Minister relationship and the prime minister versus the former Unio n
Finance Minister. V.P. Singh should be examined critically. In some
newspapers comments were passed as news items. This is totally
unethical as news is sacred and comments are free and the right place for
the comments is the editorial page. The comments offered in these
controversies were partisan and did not give an objective picture. The
increasing tendency on the part of the journalists of leading dailies to be
partisan and politicize the profession poses the greatest threat to the
freedom of the press in the post independence era.
Trends in Indian journalism :
After indepe ndence newspapers in English have grown both in influence
and popularity. Statistics show that there is a constant increase not only in
the number of newspapers publi shed in English but also in their
circulation.
Another significant feature is the publi cation of newspapers in Indian
languages by the Owners of English language newspapers.
There were 28 multi-edition dailies during 1968 with 71 editions.
Circulation of multi edition dailies constituted 37 percent of the total
circulation. For example. the Indian Express was publi shed
simultaneou sly from 7 cities and had the highest circulation of 0.4 million
(Press in India-1969 ).
The English language press continues to command the highest circulation
in one quarter in 1956 as well as in 1967. This trend continues even now
which can be clearly revealed from the statistics given at the end of this
chapter.
There is also a steady growth in the circulation of Indian language papers
thoug h the increase in circulation of these pape rs is not in proportion to
the increase, in the English language press. Though Hindi is a national
language, English papers which are being published in all the states show
that English is continuing its role as a vital medium, of Inter-State
Communications. The circulation of the Malayalam and Tamil pape rs munotes.in
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46 have increased enormously. being next only to Hind i and being more than
the Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali language papers.
The state circulation clearly indicate that English press is weak in the
Hindi region s and strong in the non-Hindi regions. The bulk of the Hind i
pape rs (nearly 70%) are being published from the smaller cities and towns.
(Press in India 1969) The smaller cities and towns appear to be more
active in the field of dailie s than in the field of periodicals.
It is significant that neither an English daily nor an Indian language daily
has any chance of becoming a national newspaper with an All India
Circulation. Time will tell whether at any time Hindi , will be able to have
an all India circulation.
One of the significant features of the Indian press is the phenomenal
growth of Indian language papers since 1959 . For example, the Hindi
paper ‘Navbharat Times' publi shed in Delh, belonging to the 'Times of
India' group started its publi cation in 1950. It reached a circulation of
60,000 by 1960 and more than doubled itself in 1969 when it had it
circulation of 0.14 million . Another Hind i daily ‘Hindustan’ from Delh i
sold 57,000 copies in 1960 and went up to 0.11 million in 1969. The
Bengali paper 'Ananda Bazaar Patrika' grew from 0.17 million in 1965 to
0.23 million in 1969.
One of the significant development in Indian Press after indepen dence is
the starting of Indian Language dailies by the owners of many of the
prosperous English language dailies. For example the 'Indian Express'
group has been publi shing four -Indian language dailies. The
'Loksatta' in Marathi and ‘Dina manil' in Tamil are very successful
pape rs.
Indian journalism trends:
It may be predicted that the future expansion of the Indian press will take
the path of starting newspapers in small towns giving district news and
carrying advertisement of consumer good s used by the non-affluent
sections of the population, in contrast to the present tendency of the
newspapers in English as well as in the Indian languages which
emphasise the international and national news and carry advertisements
of consumer good s popular among the affluent section of the society.
Already in Karnataka state there are a number of all small town dailies
giving news of the town and the district.
Indian language papers must develop their own character by devoting
more space to state, District and local n ews. They must aIso alter their
style of writing. For example, 'Anand a Bazar Patrica' change d from
classical to the spoken language and also simplified its spelling. As a
result of this there was rise in its circulation.
In the recent years there is a tendency to cut down the long speeches of the
politicians and devote more space for feature articles. There is also a
tenden cy to 'provide women's columns and column for children. The munotes.in
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47 demand for photographs. cartoons and comic strips has increased in the
recent years. The feature articles by the foreign columnists like Drew
Pearson, Walter Lippman, late Kingsley Martin, were in great demand.
Indian feature writers emerged like M. Roy, Frank Moreas, Chalapathi
Rau, Mankekar, Prem Bhatia, Durga Das. K. Ranga swamy and others.
Bombay's tabloids Mid Day and the Daily have entered the competition.
Besides, the crop of new 'glossies' like India Today. Gentlemen, Bombay
and Onlooker are luring readers away from The Illustrated Weekly of
India.
There is a healthy trend of professionali sm in get-up and printing by
making use of technolo gy.
The growth of the regiona l and local press and, above all the rural press is
another trend in today's, Indian journalism. There is rise of the rural press
in Andhra Pr adesh, Karnataka, Tamilnad u and Kerala.
Business dailies and journals have come up in large numbers in recent
times. Investigative reporting is becoming popu lar in magazine journalism
as well as dailies.
One of the Chie f defects of Indian Press is the continuing emphasis on
political events and political speeches and the neglect of reporting and
analysis of the development activities in the country. The lengthy
reports on political defections and details regarding 'toppling game' make
not only depressing reading but gives a distorted picture of the events
in the country. The immediate need in India is a reduction in the
emphasis in political reporting and an increase in development reporting.
Ombudsman:
Some newspapers in the United States have appointed Ombudsmen
usually experienced editors, to investigate complain ts abou t their
performance. Until the Ombudsmen were appo inted, persons dissatisfied
with a newspape r's performance were not attende d properly.
Ombudsmen serve as impartial arbitrators. They now receive and
investigate the complain ts and are empowered to publish any corrections
that they consider necessary. In many cases, the Ombudsman also read
and comment on their newspapers' performance even before receiving any
complain ts. On larger newspapers, it is a full time job.
The Washington Post appointed its first Ombudsman in 1970 . One
of the Post’s editors explained “We were being robbed of our one
essential asst, without which no reporter or news, caster can operate,
which is public confidence or to Use the more fashionabl e word
‘Credibility' "Times of India” has appointed Former Justice of India Mr.
P.N. Bhagwati as its ‘Ombudsman'.
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48 The Foreign Media Spectre:
There are at least 7 proposals before the Unio n government for foreign
newspapers to have Indian Collaboration. The proposals envisage Indian
editions of leading Financial Times, Wall street Journal, New York
Times, The Guardian. The international Herald Tribune Time Magazine,
the EUE group of France and the Paul' Mann Chain. The Indian
participants include Ananda Bazar group, publishers of 'Business
Standa rd’, Living Media, Publishers of 'India Today' Magna
publications. Publishers of 'Parade' and the 'Deccan Chronicle'.
The anti-entry lobby has castigated the western media as a tool of cultural
imperalism, western business and foreign policy interests and a frivolaus
critic of the third world. Those oppo sed to this advocated the entry of the
foreign newspapers for the sake of plurality, competition and the
reader's right to know. Globalisation, they pointed out, was unstoppable.
Justice R.S. Sarakaria, Chai rman of the Press Coun cil of India, argues that
foreign media intrusion is harmful. The fate of free press in India was
extricably linked with the survival of India as a sovereign democratic
republi c, says he.
The deba te goes on.
Trends in journalism:
The world's newspapers are quite diverse with respect to emphases and
content.
In capitalist nations newspape rs normally devote 40 to 65 per cent of their
total space to news and editorial matter. The remainin g space is
occupied by advertising. The typical newspaper provides its readers with
such items as features, photographs, editorials and essays, columns, letters
to the editor. invited and freelan ce contributions, news analysis, long
verbatim speeches. government announ cements, comic strips and
cartoons, cross words and other puzzles, weather reports and maps,
horoscopes and other journalistic fluff, stock market charts and graphs of
various kinds, and a potpourri of editorial tidbits.
In communist countries newspapers are puritanical in their news
presentation, giving very rarely or no sensational news of crime, disasters
etc. Usually they are filled with official pronoun cements, news of
development and progress, and stinging editorial propaganda against the
non-communist world.
In the Third World Coun tries, the pape rs are normally small and poorly
printed and are struggling economically. Some of the papers resemble
capitalist journals and others more often resemble those of communist
nations. They are certainly inconsistent by and large. The same pape r may
play up Western style sensationalism and also give prominence to long
essays and articles abou t national development.
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49 Growth of newspapers and their readership is stagnan t in the developing
Third World, according to UNESCO. In Africa there are still countries
with no daily newspaper at all; and in all but 10 African countries, the
average daily circulation is less than 20 copies per 1,000 people.
Newspapers remain an urban and elite form of communication in the
developing countries. Newspaper defende rs insist that newspapers are far
more important that the circulations might indicate.
Despite many barriers to newspaper growth around the world, the press is
growing. New publications are springing up on every continent, many of
them Catering to specialized audiences. In Europe the press has been
growing more slowly since 1970, but it is still vigorous in spite of many
economic problems. In Africa. South America and Asia newspapers are
generally small and struggling, but their quali ty is slowly improving as
more young people are getting journalistic training.
Bombay is among the cities which have the greatest number of daily
newspapers.
There are certain cities through out the world which because of their
location, size or political importance are especially prominent as collecting
centres and transmission points for the World news - Calcutta. Bombay
and New Delhi are among them.
International quality Newspapers:
Quality (or elite) journalism is that which has an impact with intellectuals
and opinion leaders throughou t the world. It is journalism which
diplomats, educators, writers, theologi ans, economists and scientists take
seriously. It is the kidn of journalism which libraries and Universities in
all countries feel must be made available to their studen ts. It is the
kind of journalism, in every country, that serves as a kind of model for
the mainstream serious journalists and newspape rs. It is that which is most
quoted, allude d to and respected;
Quality journalism is found in quality newspapers of the World. These
newspapers are dedicated to being journalistic opinion leaders, to
having a real impact on national and World policy, to being respected by
serious, educated and concerned citizens for their thoroughness,
balance, integrity; and all desire to serve as role models for other
newspapers in their societies.
Quality, or elite, newspapers must have influence - at least they must be
taken seriously - not only in their own countries but also in other
countries. These elite papers may be essentially of two types: (1) those
publi shed in free or libertarian nations and (2) those publi shed in
controlled or authoritarian nations. Each group is dedicated to its
particular press philosophy and takes its responsibilities, as it sees them,
very seriously. Considerable emphasis is often placed today on social
responsibility in determining the elite status of a newspaper.
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50 Asia, with the exception of China , Japan and India is virtually without an
elite press. Japan stands out among the three for its high development of
and progress in, quality journalism - and popula r journalism, too, for that
matter.
India' s problems relative to the elite papers are much more acute than are
those in the USSR, China or Japan. A multiplicity of languages (coupled,
of course, with economic deficiencies) seems to be the main barrier to
more and better elite journalism. At present the major elite pape rs of
India are published in English, the three most important being the
‘Statesman' of Calcutta, the ‘Hindu’ of Madras, and the 'Times of India'
published in Bombay and Delhi . In addition to the language problem, the
Indian Press must contend with a low educational system, scarcity of
trainin g facilities and trained journalists, and old and crude printing
equipment.
Elite newspapers along with a sizable group of middle - area papers
(located somewhere between the mass appea l and the elite) form the great
bulk of the world's newspapers. It is really the state of elite news papers in
any country which officers the best insights into the health and, general
level of journalism.
Largest circulated Dailies, '1994
Malayala Manorama (5 units) 748788
Times of India (6 units) 711063
Punjab Kesari (3 units) 613903
Indian Express (15 units) 537727
Matrubhumi (5 units) 492658
The Hind u (7 units) 478139
Eenad u (7 units) 475830
Anand Bazar Patrika 458104
Sande sh (4 units) 439186
Navbharat Times (4 unit) 385499
Hind stan Times (2 unit) 377190
Daily Thanthi( 10 units.) 360458
[Manoram Year book,1995]
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51 7
ORGANISATIONAL STRUC TURE
OF NEWSPAPER
Behind every successful newspaper we find great organisational effort,
skill and vision. Today's pres s. caned the Fourth Estate, has acquired the
dimensions of a full- fledge d business organisation, involving capital
investment and other factors of production.
Newspapers may be small or large, having a variety of ownership such as
industrial houses, political parties, individual or government ownership.
They all have to function alike, as a free enterprise with an intention of
profit-making, in addition to their social, political and other commitments.
A full-fledge d newspaper organisation has a well-developed system of
information gathering, processing and printing, publicity, circulation and
management of these functions. The organisation can be divided into three
major sections - the mechanical, the editorial and the business section.
The business aspect of the newspaper is to decide the policy of the
newspaper and provide the finances. The policy may be independent,
neutral or partisan. A partisan newspaper is one that suppo rts a political
party or a group in any controversy in public affairs. Such a
newspaper has strong convictions about the broad issues of the party
or group values. An independent newspaper owes no continuous faith
towards a party, it may suppo rt some other party too. It makes up its mind
independen tly, of any association with a party or group. Whereas, a
neutral newspaper refuses to take sides. Usually we find that many
newspapers are neutral about certain· issues only; hardly any newspaper is
completely neutral upon all issues. Such a newspaper can be called
spineless because a newspaper cannot escape taking sides against evils in
life like cr ime and corruption.
Apart from policy-making, the business activity includes administration,
circulation, advertising, auditing and promotion. The newspaper owners
today are like any other enterpreneurs. The administration contains its
board or governing body representatives of all departments, giving most
of its attention to the financial side. The owner himself may be the
publisher or may employ a publi sher. Generally, the main business
administrative officers are the publi sher or owner, business manage r,
circulation manage r and the plant in- charge. The editor also may be on
the board. The administrative office is like all other offices, staffed
with accountants, cashiers, clerks. stenographe rs, typists etc.
The department which gathers a major portion of the newspaper
revenue is the Advertising Department. Its smooth functionin g leads a
newspaper to prosperity and success. The success depend s on (i) Whether
the editorial depa rtment creates the greatest possible amount of
reader - interest. (ii) Whether the mechanical department produces
an attractive paper and. (iii) Whether the circulation department munotes.in
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52 succeeds in maintaining wide distribution of the pape r. It gathers and
assembles the copy of the advertisements. It gives contracts to advertisers
for space, gets a copy prepared, gets it approved by the advertiser, makes
the necessary changes. bills the copies, and sends them for page making.
Classified advertising is the most important of all ads for the newspaper as
well as the public. The revenue earned by the advertising depa rtment
depend s on the popu larity and extent of circulation of the newspape r, and
also on the prompt services and quality of ads given by the department.
The circulation department is responsible for a proper distribution of the
newspaper. All the other depts. bring their material in. the circulation
depa rtment lakes it out. If the reporters and editors do an excellent job but
the circulation department fails to get the paper into the readers' hands in
time, all the editorial work has gone waste. This depa rtment requires well-
co-ordinated personnel and style of work. City editions as well as dak
editions have to reach the reader in time before the news becomes an
already known stale story. A metropoli tan newspaper with many daily
editions needs a complex set-up for circulation department, which
includes road and air transport facilities. Giving excellent editorial work
and quick. wide circulation at a low cost of price is indeed a great
achievement of the newspaper manage ment. Circulation depa rtment
always works unde r tight time schedule.
Business activities of a newspaper include promotionary activities and
routine services like janitorial services, maintainance of stocks, mailing,
sales promotion etc. Promotionary services are inviting tourists and
visitors. establishing rapport with readers and other sections of the public,
advertising the newspaper through electronic media, in other papers, on
billboards, organising shows and competitions etc.
The mechanical jobs in the newspaper organisation, are related to printing
the newspaper. This involves type, setting, preparing the galley proof and
printing of the approved dummy pages. The composing room has
typesetting machines which transform c opy into lead columns, set
advertising matter, prepare headlines, and assemble this material for
printing. There is the engraving room in which photographs are retouched
and improved, and art- work is done, along with cartoons, comic strips
and illustrations. The press room is the place where the actual operation
of printing takes place.
There is one more very important department, 'the Research and Reference
Section. It is the place where all the information is stocked – i.e. cuttings,
clippings, various reference books like encyclopedia, photographs,
pictures and such things. Such documents and books help the reporters and
feature writers. Clippings of news issues, biographies of important
peopl e come in very useful for writing obituaries, for quick reference
work. Today, clippings and cuttings have been replaced with online
databases. The progressive nature of a newspaper is usually dependent
on h ow richly equipped is the Research and Reference section. This
section preserves history and its links with the present. For instance,
memories of the World War II came alive on the 50th anniversary of the
attack on Normandy, which was widely covered all over the world by munotes.in
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53 the media. Old photographs were printed with new information, giving a
new understanding of what the war meant to the world. Research and
Reference Section is always a source of inspiration to investigative
reporters, editors and, feature writers.
Finally, there is the Editorial Section, which makes the newspaper, in
which we find the most hectic activity of reporting, editing, proof-
reading and page- making. Whether the newspaper is metropoli tan or
country – based, the editorial department is always a busy depa rtment.
The editorial department usually includes news, art, and many other
sections. The metropoli tan newspapers have a large number of people
working, compared to small, country newspape rs. Reporters gather news-
global, national, state a local; photographe rs, similarly employed, provide
pictures, cartoonists supply cartoons. Editorial and s pecial writers
compose articles, special columns, and other features. Free-lancers too
contribute features and articles. The editorial department, prepares the
copy for the compositor and printer. Headlines are written, pictures and
photographs are retouched and mounted. The editorial depa rtment has to
work in coordination with the Advertising department to prepare complete
pages.
The newspaper can be divided into two parts - news and views. The editor
is, the head of the whole editorial team and is responsible for the paper as
a whole. In practice, the News side is looked after by the News Editor
while the Editor on the Views side and guides the News side. In very large
metropoli tan papers, there may be associate editors in charge of sports,
financial matters. women's editions, editorial writers. librarians, Sunday
editors. City editors. Sc ience editors, editors for fine arts, columnists,
literary editors etc. as well as specialised area editors like in aviation,
'travel and tourism, farming and gardening, movies and pictures etc. The
editorial department also includes reporters, photographers, artists, clerks
and other administrative staff. The diagram below can help a brief sketch
of this depa rtment.
Editor
Views New
Assistant Editors News Editor
Chief Sports Commercial News
Chief Sub-
Repo rter Editor Editor Service Editor
General Sports Business Correspondents Sub-editors Repo rters Repo rters Repo rters in district and state capitals and major world cities.
Printing Plast
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54 8
CHALLENGES OF 21ST
CENTURY FOR PRINT MEDIA
The 21st century is going to be a very busy age the space age, the age of
electronics and computers. It will have an ever-increasing demand for
instant communication networks and free flow of information round
the clock. The print media, therefore will have to gear up to cater to the
need s of quick supply of information for a busy civilisation of tomorrow.
The media today are growing. Their work and responsibilities have
multiplied owing to the ruthless efficiency, norms and the constantly
changing lifestyle. They have to maintain proper infrastructure and
technology. Presently they face a dual pressure - that of an ever
increasing population of readers and exploding, almost chaotic volumes of
information flow coming to them.
Science and technology have revolutionised the process of news
gathering and production of newspaper. The American and Japanese
newspapers have chang ed almost beyond recognition because" of
introduction of automation.
Gone are the days of drafting data from. the teleprinter into a news story,
on pape r with ink. In a fully automated modern newspaper the
journalist's report or story reaches the computer straight from the reporter
or sub-editor who use V DT (Video Display Terminal) to type or edit the
copy. A small T. V. screen attached to the key-board enables the
reporter or the sub-editor to see the copy coming up on the screen as he
types it. After completion, each page can be stored and sent to the News
Editor's desk.
Then, there is the CPU the Central Possessing Unit or the computer which
stores all the typed material. The text on the VOT can be reviewed
backword or forward or can be altered. N ews agencies regularly use
computers to transmit messages to their client newspape rs.
The news room has an electronic system of editing. Every story has a code
number. As soon as the required story appea rs on the screen, the sub-
editor can edit it on the VDT and give it a headline. The reporter also has
a VOT which he uses for putting his story into a computer from where it
goes to the sub-editor.
The printing room also has undergone changes today. Previously letters
and lines were composed on monotype and linotype machines with molten
lead. Today's typesetting is 'cold type'. The typesetter is a photo munotes.in
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55 composition device. Pages are created photographically, instead of
physically in metal type. The typesetter sets type by taking pictures of
letters, with the help of a computer. When the photo pape r is developed, in
high speed machine, the lines of characters make up the story as
edited. In American and Japanese newspapers most of this work is
computerized and automated. In future, the newspaper will soon be able to
eliminate the process of posting stories on pages, as well as elimination of
typewriters. Today we can get fascimile newspapers. Ready pages are sent
by newsrooms to other offices by fax and are only assembled and printed
there, thus enabling early availability of newspapers in distant places.
Computerisation and automation have encouraged research and reference
work in newspaper offices. Maintainance of books, files, cuttings and
clippings is no more a tediou s job, as all this information is stored
in floppies and compact discs. Communication is facilitated by computer
networks for quick reference.
Nowadays databases or online libraries have come into existence. They
can place an enormous amount of information to the reporter, with great
specificity. Their data are so vast that it may take months to pick a
particular bit of information. But these databases can be searched using
specific key words and carefully crafted search phrases. So, the mass of
accumulated literature in any field can be narrowed to the appropriate
information within minutes. The database has the ability to search
million s of pages of information in seconds to find a s ingle mention, e.g.,
a person’s name.
Online libraries are made up of the past editions of a variety of
newspape rs and magazines. A reporter in Hawaii can rapidly and
efficiently search through hund reds of newspapers and magazines, news
files in U.S., as well as news files and agencies in, Japan. U.K., or
translations from the Soviet agency Tass. To report on a new disease,
for instance, he can go through hundreds of medical journals and court
records all over the world, in no time. In return he can question hospital
authorities, pathologists, coroner, patient's statements and other recorded
details. All this helps him to draw his conclusions from the widest range
of publi c information and focus the result of his search on a pinpointed
problem.
Information is electronically stored, digitalized, Articles, books, journals
are stored into a binary electronic code which can be searched at a speed
which is incredible. For example, locating a personality in who's who in
India, in a print version would take a very long time for a reporter, but the
online library locates within seconds. Till today, such information was
stored in dictionaries. encyclopaedias, or clippings in a newspaper
library. But today, all this becomes a small componen t of a manmoth
electronic information resource.
This new system requires heavy investment which is possible for
developed countries. Newspapers in the developing countries also face
another problem trainin g the editorial staff to use the electronic system munotes.in
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56 and to take care of it, for the 21st century challenges the newspaper to
adopt new methods of operation and acquire proficiency in them.
WHAT IS NEWS, NEWS VALUES, NEWS GATHERING
Today's, world is a news - hungry world. Day in and day out the print and
electronic media pool up and pour out volumes of information, and yet we
say, 'So, what's the news?' We belon g to a rapidly progressive world and
feel we better find ourselves a niche by updating our minds.
What is 'news'? Is it something that is new to us? What is new to one
person may be very old stuff for another. Can we define news as 'any
freshly occurred even'? Everyday, the rising sun can become news
then. The newspaper canno t take role of any fresh event that is trivial, is
habitual or is predictable easily by common logic. And yet, a sunrise can
become hews, if the sun’s eclipsed, even if the eclipse is predicted; for the
element of 'news' here is how exactly the eclipse, occurs and, its effect on
environment and so on. So, the rarity of the eclipse makes it the news.
'The New York Times' carries a slogan. "All the news that's fit to print.
The slogan is controversial, for the criteria of 'fitness' for print
depend on the readership, their culture, attitudes and norms. A well-
established periodical like Debo nair can print pictures which are
considered to be 'fit for print' for a considerable time and one tine day
these pictures are confiscated as obscene. Newsworthiness or an event his
also in the eye of the reporter and the editor.
The reader's interest too makes an event news. Whatever creates
amusement, surprise, alarm or caution, fascination and amazement in the
reader can become news. The story of discovery of dinosaur's eggs or the
corpse of an 6000 years old aboriginal man from icy mountains becomes
news for the reader because it is connected to past history which is a
subject of amazement wonder, curiosity. Stories regarding frequen t
marriages and divorces of movie stars in royal families, life - style of the
wealthy or those in the unde rworld become news because they create
amusement and wonder.
They make the readers identify with characters in these stories and
imagine what they would do in a given situation. Sometimes a
personality fascinates the reader. e.g. stage performances of Mike Jackson
created 'Michael Mania' and were given great coverage by media. A
familiar personality for Indian s today is Mr. T.N. Seshan, widely popular
for his rebel - image. Such names make news.
Whatever has adventure and drama becomes news. Strange feats e.g.
eating of iron pieces, television sets and pins and blades are news. Grand
celebrations, wild ... life stories, discoveries regarding science and
technology are full of wonder and amazement and thus become news.
Adventure with romance make excellent theme for reader's interest, hence
stories of war and peace, conflicting situations like hijacking and
kidnapping, 'great' robberies and escapes, stories of sex and crime catch munotes.in
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57 the reader's eye fast because of the exciting 'how' element in them.
Considering all these factors, we can define news in the following ways :
News is something revealed. This presumes that it was suppressed and not
desired to be revealed. News is something which s omeone wants to
suppress. B ecause of the 'someone’ behind or in the story, the news
becomes important'.
A more detailed definition is : news is any event, idea or opinion that is
timely, that creates interest or affects large number of people in a
community and that is capab le of being understood by them.
Yet another definition: news is a compilation of facts and events of current
interest or importance to the readers of the newspaper printing it.
News is anything and everything interesting about fife and materials in all
their manifestation.
News is information that is meaning ful for the people. Sometimes a
simple event becomes news because it has great utility for the
readers; e.g. introducing new bus routes or local trains specially tor lady -
commuters. We can broadly categorise news as follows :
Hard news: News of important publi c events such as actions of
government, social or economic trends, education, international relations.
Soft news: Information that is less important than hard n ews but often
more interesting, even tantalising: gossipy items abou t celebrities, offbeat
incidents, sensational crime cases, items noted for reader interest.
Straight news : Presentation of unvarnished facts without an attempt to
analyse, interprete or capture human interest.
Spot news: A sudde n happening, such as a fire, a jury verdict. or a
political decision, as oppo sed to trend stories.
A journalist must know to distinguish between a 'news issue' and a 'news
event'. The 'news issue' is largely an ongoing situation or problem, like a
long- standing dispute like the Enron project. It can begin with a dramatic,
unexpected or accident-like manne r; or it initially happens to be a minor
issue but later assumes considerable importance, creating a kind of fever.
News events have a comparatively short life. Sometimes the reporter's
skill and perception can 'make' news out of a simple, ordinary event.
News Values and News Gathering: As said earlier, a newspaper office
gets an unending flow of news items from news agencies and other
sources. The editorial department has to select them and arrange pages of
the newspaper. Selection and presentation of news is a hectic job, as the
edition has to be completed by specified time schedule . Each newspaper
organisation has a different kind of ownership, basic policy according
to which news gets coverage. Dailies, weekly supplements, special
editions, tabloid papers, are all designed differently and select news munotes.in
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58 accordingly. This selection is don e also in consideration of what would
appeal to the readership of that paper.
Evaluation of news is based on the following factors:
1. Timeliness: The reader wants to know the latest, the newest
happening. If the story is followed up, it must say what new truth has
been discovered by the reporters. The newspape r, which gives the already
known details and fails to add new information canno t be considered
efficient and its readership will decline. Today the print media have to
face a tough competition from the electronic media, who broadcast or
transmit several or hourly bulletins of news. Yet, the popularity of print
media is not in jeopa rdy because they can cover the news in great details.
We find that afternoon editions in print have follow-up of the headlines of
dailies, which are in turn followed up in greater details by dailies the next
day. For instance, the story of an old chawl in Bombay collapsing in
torrenitial rains. The story is covered with the details of the collapse either
by dailies or by the evening papers depending on the time of the event. If
it is during the day, we find the emphasis of the next day's dailies being
given on the relief work and aid to the residents of the chawl, and not in
the collapse as such, as it already a state news. Timeline ss also means the
need of the reader to know the event which has an effect on people's daily
activities, such as shortage of milk, loadshedding schedules, cur in water-
supply etc. have to be reported with priority.
Proximity: The second important factor to determine the value of news is
proximity of the news to the reader. Any event which is 'close' to the
reader, which the reader can 'recognise' gains value. Every reader has a
framework of his education, his cultural, geographical boundaries within
which his mind can respond to events. Anything that is alien , unfamiliar,
unimaginabl e fails to get any response from him. An Indian who has
never visited the West or read abou t it, may not be interested in or
able to recognise the problems the western people. For instance, a news
story which tells that an excess crop of oranges turned so unmanageable
that arranges had to be thrown into the river making the river water orange
in colour. A story of this sort may not be even believed by an Indian
farmer. However exciting or 'hot' the story may, all the efforts of the
reporter are in vain, for it is nor unde rstood fully on account of poor
proximity. The Indian farmer·'s wife may not unde rstand why the Russian
women farmer refuses to have more children althoug h she may not have
even a single son. Local problems get much more attention from
readers than problems which are far away in time and space. For the
simple talk of India, news having futuristic importance too, Similarly has
poor value. The editorial desk has to understand this framework of the
reader's ideas and evapluate the news.
Size: The size of the news is important. If the persons involved in
it are eminent individuals. a tiny story too gains importance, like simple
ailments of well-known leaders. If a regular commuter has a munotes.in
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59 suffocating journey in a crowded local train, it is no news; but if the
railway minister travels second class in little discomfort it is news.
The size of the story implies the dimension or magnitude of the
event. A natural calamity like flood or famine, a tornado or a hurricane
becomes news for its capacity to destroy a vast area of land and kill
many people. The World War II still appea rs in newspapers, for the
extent of destruction it caused, the diplo macy and the lunacy behind it,
the suffering and the agony of the victims have till today not been fully
made known. Any new 'glimpse of truth abou t the Natzi killings still
catches reader's interest. Sinking of a ship, an aeroplane crash, a
colossal building collapsing in an earthqua ke make 'big' news. Riots,
sudde n 'bandh's, sudden failure of local trains or serial bomb blasts
become big news on the front page because of their 'size'. Size indicates
time span as well. An archeological find, takes the reader back in time by
a few hund red years. The discovery of pillars in the deep ocean, near
Dwaraka in Gujarat which were dated to be a few thousand years
old become great news, because every Indian has Dwaraka in
association with Lord Krishna and the myths surroundi ng him. Soon, the
2000th year after the death of Christ will be a great year, bringing back
memories of the beginning of Christianity. Time and its legends remains
in the collective unconscious of the readers and come out afresh with a
small event conne cted to it.
Importance: News is evaluated on the basis of its importance. This term
has a relative meanin g for various readers at different places and at
different time. It is for the News Editor to decide what is important for his
readers and choose from a plethora of cuttings collected from the
teleprinters. Therefore evaluating news’s purely subjective. If we compare
the front pages of any two leading dailies, what strikes us that they give
priority to the same event differently. Every newspaper has a mental link
with its readers, and its priorities are well- accepted by them. This is why
most readers are habituated to a specific newspaper and do not get any
satisfaction with a substitute pape r. This mental linkage applies not only
to what is considered as important but also to selecting details of the
story, the Ianguage and the 'angle' of the story. There are certain issues,
however, which are beyond any controversy of importance, like an
outbreak of war or riots, deaths of eminent people, changing political
scenario, changing policies in national economy, education, administration
or such other matters. Local news too is sometimes much more important
than state, national or global news.
Evaluation of news is difficult because of the sheer volume of news items
that are made available to the editorial desk everyday. Here is are the
sources of gathering news :
1) One of the most important of all sources for a journalist is the
news agencies like the Press Trust of India (PTI) and the United
News of India (UN I). Newspapers subscribe to their services and
receive news items through teleprinters or fax machines. There
are syndicates like Asia Features which cover a wide span of munotes.in
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60 events and supply them. Newspapers can develop their own systems
like the TOI NS (Times of India News Service)
2) Various government departments issue press releases, brochures,
etc.
Besides these papers, there is always the District Gazeteer. It gives a
great dial of information about every district in a state, with places of
interest, the- history, culture and people of the district, their'
life-style, faith, customs etc. and also anything special about the
district, administration of the district, etc.
3) The Secretarial is a source from where a journalist can gather
news abou t policies and schemes unde rtaken by the government, all
kinds of developmental projects In moffussiI areas, information
regarding law and order, information abou t bureaucrats, ministers
and their portfolios.
4) The Municipal Corporation is a source for all information regarding
taxes, publi c health services, urban statistics, water supply and
Sanitation, housing and other civic facilities.
5) Courts of law are the source for all minor as well as major
judgements, important appoin tments, from bar and bench, enqui ries
and reports. etc.
6) Police coroner, Home Guards, fire brigade , hospitals are for
information abou t disasters and traged ies;
7) The Legislature is a very important source on matters of publi c
interest like the annual budget, various ordinances and bills.
8) A ll political parties have their headquarters in every city and town.
They are a useful source for any enlightenment on political
developments. The oppo sition part headquarters are the best source
to collect any critique or commentary on policies or actions of the
ruling party.
9) Universities and research institutes supply information the
educational scenario fn the state.
10) There are a great number of social service organisatios, relief
work groups and clubs, welfare projects, charity trusts, trade
agencies, cultural organisations etc. which can help in matters of
social welfare and rehab ilitation of the weaker elements of society.
11) About commercial activities, we can approach various commercial
corporations, trade chambers, stock exchanges, trade union s .
12) The Government of India runs information depa rtments like the
Press Information B ureau of the Union Government and the
Directorate of Publicity in every state.
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61 13) There are several Vocational Guidance Bureaus, the Employment
Exchange, the labour commissioner's office. Ambulan ce
services. Tourism departments at the central and state levels.
14) Then, there are the press conferences, cocktail parties and such
other functions giving news abou t items which need to be published.
These conferences are hosted by industrial manufacturers,
political parties. social welfare organizations, trade unions and
diplo matic representatives from foreign countries.
15) An extremely useful source for a journalist is libraries and
reference s ections maintained by newspaper organisations
themselves. They incIude clippings of all happenings, personali ty
details, pictures, photographs etc. These documents are immensely
useful in making any comparative study of a news item, either for
reporting or for writing features etc.
16) Sometimes information comes from anon ymous individuals and
eyewitnesses, sometimes the reporter himself is an eyewitness to an
event.
A reporter has to check the authenticity of information, especially coming
from the last source. As regards government documents, authenticity is not
in Question.
News gathering is done from these sources in many ways. There are
certain 'beats' which reporters cover everyday, for instance, the police
beat or the crime beat. The reporter goes to the police control room
everyday for instance, the police beat or the crime beat. The reporter goes
to the police control room every day, to the coroner's court to hospitals to
find daily happenings. Another reporter may cover the court beat,
visiting jails and custodies, interrogating, the prisoners.
Repo rters are assigned the job of attendin g meetings of service clubs,
political meetings, to watch for news'. They are also asked to interview
people. In any case, the reporter has to keep cultivating his sources,
constantly keep looking for stories. He keeps contacts with important
individuals and tries to establish rappo rt with them. These individuals may
drop hints to sensational news to come. They may not always welcome
him and may resent or resist him and certainly do not want to figure in the
news that is unpleasant. The reporter has to convince them that he respects
them as individuals. If he has a professional attitude and helps them he is
respected too in turn. He must know how to keep certain information "off
the record”, keep the sources anonymous and refer to them as ‘reliable
sources' or ‘informed sources'. This makes the reader know that the
sources are authentic and it also keeps the individual informers happy and
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Like ‘beat’ reporter there are specialists who have expertise in certain
fields like science, sports, medicine, arts, education, law, business
and finance, culture etc. They provide understanding and perspective to
the trends in their fields. Repo rters are also asked to interview
personali ties.
Investigative reporting is also assigned to journalists by the
newspaper. Various types of reporting are discussed elsewhere.
munotes.in